The Countless Faces of Understanding: On Istinbat, Mystical Listening, and Sufi Exegesis

 

The Countless Faces of Understanding:

On Istinbat, Mystical Listening, and Sufi Exegesis

Sara Sviri

a. Istinbat

In his seminal work Exégèse coranique et langage mystique, Père Paul Nwyia states that the Sufis, in discussing their special Qur'anic exegetical method, refer to it as istinbat rather than as tafsir or ta ’wil.^{[1] [2] [3]} On the face of it, this statement is corroborated by two classical Sufi compilations: The Kitab al-luma ‘ by Abu Nasr al-Sarraj (d. 378/988), which contains a section entitled Kitab al-muslanbatât¹ and the Tahdhib al-asrarby Abu Sa‘d al-Khargushi (d. 406/1012), which contains a chapter entitled Bab f-dhikr mustanbatatihim min al-qurUn wal-sunna? Other Sufi compilations, however, such as Kitab al-ta‘airuify al-Kalâbâdhï (d. ca. 380/990), al-Risala by al-Qushayri (d. 465/1072), or ‘Awaríf al-ma ‘ârifby Abu Hafs al-Suhrawardi (d. 632/1234) - albeit incorporating copious exegetical material and discussions thereof - contain no similar chapter headings. Also lists of Sufi terms and definitions such as those we find in al-Qushayri’s Risala, in Kashf al-mahjüb by al-Hujwiri (d. ca. 456/1063-1064), in al-Suhrawardi’s ‘Awaríf al­ma ‘arifand in al-Sarraj’s work itself,^[4] have no record of the term istinbat. It appears that although the use of istinbat and its derivatives is documented in Sufi literature, its usgae is generally random and by no means dissimilar to its use in non-Sufi sources. In what follows I shall attempt to show that neither it, nor its derivatives, can be said to have the status of a technical term (istiHh, lafz) by which Sufi exegesis is named and distinguished from other exegetical methods.^[5] From the outset, it would seem that Nwyia’s statement is far-fetched and calls for modification. At the same time, Sufi Qur'anic exegesis does have distinctive features, irrespective of whether these are qualified by a specific term or not. Beyond considering istinbat and its derivatives, therefore, the purpose of this paper is to discuss and contextualize some distinctive exegetical features of the mystical tradition. As for istinbat, while consulting the sources in order to clarify its appearance and usage, it became clear that the thematic study of istinbat as a general exegetical Islamic method occupies a surprisingly marginal position both in the primary and in the secondary literatures. This unexpected find justifies a preliminary examination of the meaning and usage of the term istinbat in Islamic literature in general, before embarking on the examination of Sufi exegesis in particular. What, then, is meant by istinbaf!

According to the classical dictionaries, the primary meaning of the root N-B-T is the gushing forth of water from a new well. In its fourth and tenth conjugations, the verb means to discover water hidden deep in the earth, to make it gush forth and to bring it to the surface.^[6] From this, it came to relate to anything that emerges or is brought out from the inside to the outside,^[7] including information, or assets.^[8] The inherent semantic nexus of istinbat and water is reflected in an apparently ancient usage, documented in Kitab al- filahah al-nabatiyya by ibn Wahshiyya (d. 291/904). This work contains a detailed chapter entitled "Bab istinbatal-miya^} wa-handasatihÁ, where the discussion revolves around finding water, digging wells and drawing water from them.^[9] It should be borne in mind that finding water was considered one of the occult sciences, and therefore istinbat can be associated with concepts such as firasa (intuition, perceptiveness, physiognomy), a concept and term well-documented in the Sufi lexicon,^[10] and riyafa, a supernatural ability to detect the presence of water or to find the right direction on a journey.^[11] This, in itself, could have lent the word a special distinction in the mystical literary tradition, but ultimately this is not the case. The classical dictionaries also note the relationship between the root N-B-T and the ethnic group known as al-nabat or al-anbat (the Nabateans).^[12] They further point out that in Islamic jurisprudence, istinbat appears as a synonym of istikhraj, both of which mean the extrapolation of an intrinsic law (al-fiqh al- batin) from an extrinsic one (specified in canonical sources) or from the legal principles, through reasoning and understanding.^[13] According to the dictionaries, this usage is anchored in the Qur’an, where the root N-B-T appears only once, in sùrat al-Nisâ¹ (4):83: "When there comes to them a matter, be it of security or fear, they broadcast it; if they had referred it to the Messenger and to those in authority among them, those of them whose task it is to investigate (alladhina yastanbitünahu minhum) would have known the matter."^[14] The term yastanbitunahu, which Arberry, cauthiosly, it seems, translates as 'investigate', is often explained by the exegetes as "they will extract it from its sources,"^[15] i.e., they will bring it out from its hiding-place and disclose it. Al-Tabari, in his commentary, explains this idiom as follows: "A mustanbit is anyone who brings to light something that was hidden from the eye’s vision or from the heart’s awareness".^[16] I shall come back to the exegetical literature in what follows, but first let us ponder the presence and use of istinbat in legal literature. Here, more than in the exegetical sources, it seems to approach the status of a technical term, although it is conspicuously absent from the glosses of most works examined, as well as from studies on Muslim jurisprudence (for more on this see below, note 20). Al-Jurjani’s Kitab al-ta ‘riiat is worth mentioning as he includes istinbat (or, rather, the past participle mustanbaf) in his definition of the term iiqh. According to him, iiqh is an ‘ ‘ilm mustanbaf, namely, a science whose methodology is based on hitting upon the correct, though inconspicuous, legal application by means of inference.^[17] Although not specifically defined in legal literature, the synonyms istinbat and istikhraj - especially istikhraj - describe the technique of inferring positivistic laws (ahkam far‘yya) from the basic principles of Islamic jurisprudence. This technique relies, as is generally accepted, on four canonical means that are always at the forefront of the Sunni jurist: the Qur’an, the Sunna, the general consensus (ijma¹) and analogy (qiyas). For example, in Kashf al-zunün, Hâjji Khalifa, under the entry ‘ilm usül al-fiqh, gives the following explanation:

The science of Islamic jurisprudence ( ‘ilm usul at-fqh) is knowledge based on the extrapolation (istinbat) of canonical laws from their general prooltexts [...]. Its aim is to develop the skill (malaka) of deriving positivistic laws (istinbat al-ahkam al-shar‘iyya at-firlyya) from the four authoritative sources: The Book, the Sunna, general consensus (ijma) and analogy (qiyas); its benefit is that [through it one

18 learns] to derive these laws correctly.

Interestingly, even where qiyas, the fourth mean, is contested and rejected, the interpretative act of istinbat is accepted, as is evident from Ibn Khaldùn who, in the Muqaddima - at least according to some manuscripts - decribes the Hanbali method as follows: "As for Ahmad ibn Hanbal, those who follow him blindly (muqallidühU) are few, because his method rebuffs ijtihad and is firmly rooted in the verification of Hadïth transmission through aligning one tradition with another... Those who adhere to his madhhab are the firmest upholders of the Sunna and the Hadïth; as they shun qiyas, they address these traditions, whenever possible, by means of istinbat."^{[18] [19]}

It follows, therefore, that istinbat, used with no derogative nuances, designates the faqilis ability to elaborate positivistic laws through the judicious application of the legal principles. This is noteworthy as, although in meaning and usage istinbatseems to belong to a similar semantic category as ijtihad (independent judgment) and qiyas (analogy) - terms which, notoriously, draw passionate critique and rejection, istinbat has maintained a fluid and neutral position, perhaps because it never developed into a full-blown technical term in its own right, as is evidenced, for example, by the fact that in the secondary literature on Islamic jurisprudence - the Encyclopaedia ofIslam included - istinbat is barely referred to.^[20]

A similar non-critical use of istinbat can be found in appraisals of the science of exegesis at large ( ‘ilm al-tafsii). Unlike the controversial terms ra ’y, qiyas and ta W?7,^[21] istinbatis generally free of polemical overtones. The act of istinbat is approved of even by strict Sunnis who dismiss interpretations based on deductive and allegorical methods. The following passage by Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (d. 751/1350), the most distinguished disciple of the Hanbali Sheikh al-islam Ibn Taymiyya (d. 728/1328), illustrates this point. In his book al- Wabil al-sayyib min al-kalhn al-tayyib (The Torrential Rain of the Goodly Word), ibn Qayyim describes Ibn ‘Abbas (d. 58/687), the epitome of Qur’anic exegetes, as follows:

Ibn ‘Abbas’ knowledge is like the sea. His discernment (Hqhuhu),¹² his extrapolation of meaning (istinbatuhU) and his understanding (fihmuhu) of the Qur’an place him above all others [from among the prophet's companions]. For behold, he heard just as they heard, and consigned the Qur’an to memory just as they did - but his soil was one of the choicest and most fertile. He prepared it for sowing and scattered on it the seeds of the scriptural texts ‘and it brought forth many good crops’ [al-Shu‘ariï (26) :7; Luqman (31):10].²³

According to Ibn Qayyim, then, the extent of Ibn ‘Abbas’ powers to extrapolate one thing from another and to expose the hidden from the overt single him out from other Qur'anic exegetes, so much so that they bow to his rulings. In this respect, adds Ibn Qayyim, Ibn ‘Abbas surpasses even Abu Hurayra, although none of the Prophet’s companions could compete with the latter's remarkable memory, or with the sheer number of traditions

which he had memorized and transmitted to subsequent generations:

How can we compare Ibn ‘Abbas’ legal rulings (fatawa), exegesis (tafsiruhu) and powers of extrapolation (istinbatulw) with the rulings and understanding of Abu Hurayra, [regardless of] the latter being a greater transmitter than the former - in fact, the greatest tradition transmitter of this nation?! Abu Hurayra transmitted the traditions just as he had heard them. He studied them by night and was wholly dedicated to their preservation and transmission. Ibn ‘Abbas, on the other hand, dedicated himself to understanding (tafaqquh) the laws and

Wabilal-sayyib, pp. 58-59. Note that the expression "he prepared it for sowing," whether knowingly or not, echoes the New Testament "parable of the sower"; for a comparative discussion of this parable in the context of mystical exegetical practices, see below, around notes 74-76.

to drawing them out (isl.inbat), causing the water of the scriptural rivers to gush forth and reveal their hidden treasures (istikhraj kunûziha)^

It is difficult to miss the impassioned and rhetorical use of the word istinbat in the above passage, penned by a foremost devotee and spokesman of Orthodox Islam. Positive istinbat, sustained, no doubt, by its Qur’anic antecedent in sùrat al-Nisk, is thus perceived as the ability, divinely bestowed upon men of authority - Ulial-amr⁵ - to engage in a profound interpretative study of scripture and tradition by resorting to a somewhat inferential and intuitive method. It reflects, perhaps surprisingly, an acceptance and approval of the ability of such men to draw implicit interpretations by correct reasoning, so as to extend the scope of the Sunna without overstepping it or shaking its foundations.^{[22] [23] [24]} Abu ‘Abbas possessed this skill; Ibn Qayyim, like his master Ibn Taymiyya, portrayed him, therefore, as the paragon of correct Qur'anic exegesis and
judicious derivation of laws.^[25] Not for nothing was he called turjuman al-Qur’an, the interpreter of the Qur’an. He deserved that the Prophet’s prayer on his behalf be fulfilled: "O God, grant him the understanding of religion and teach him the interpretation of Scripture."^[26] The principles that govern the application of orthodox exegesis are clearly laid out in a descending order: Firstly, to explain the Qur'an by the Qur'an: what is generalized in one verse may be specified in another; what is cursorily mentioned in one passage may be elaborated upon in another. Secondly, to resort to the Prophet's Sunna, which, like the Qur'an, was divinely inspired. Thirdly, to resort to the sayings of the companions, primarily to such authorities as the four righteous caliphs, ‘Abdallah ibn Mas‘Ud and ‘Abdallah ibn ‘Abbas. Only as a last resort may one seek guidance with one of the successors (al-tâbi‘ün). Exegesis based on this kind of istinbatis correct and constructive, unlike exegesis that is based on independent reasoning (ra ’y) alone.^{[27] [28]} We may conclude this part by suggesting that the exegetical methodology, evolved and preserved in Orthodox circles for juridical or other purposes, makes room for understanding Qur'anic passages that cannot be interpreted literally by applying istinbat - understanding by means of wise extrapolation and intuitive discernment. Alongside the loyalty to the model of eminent scholars such as ‘Abdallah ibn Mas‘Ud and ‘Abdallah ibn 30

Abbas, who laid down the foundation for exegetes and jurists, even staunch followers

of orthodox and normative practices do not shy away from lauding the use of a skill to which they refer, though not systematically, as istinbat. a correct and constructive application of wise interpretative skills.^[29] And yet, it is also worth noting that notwithstanding the common approval of istinbat, in fact, only a marginal space is allowed for an individual enterprise of understanding Scripture and its practical and legal implications. Admittedly, even surprisingly, a sort of personal attempt at understanding the Qur’an and the Hadïth seems to be accepted. In practice, however, within the limits of the canonical sources of knowledge, personal enterprise is barely accounted for or
allowed.³² This, as will be shown in what follows, is in clear distinction to the Sufi vision of what al-Suhrawardï describes as the "countless faces of understanding" - the phrase borrowed from him for this paper's title.

b.    Mustanbatat Sufi exegetical insights according to al-Sarraj

The most comprehensive discussion of istinbat in Sufi literature can be found in Abu Nasr al-Sarraj’s Kitab al-luma ‘. Al-Khargushi’s compilation, too, contains a chapter on Sufi insightful interpretations of verses and traditions, which he names mustanbatat, but whereas al-Khargushi merely compiles Sufi dicta on istinbat, al-Sarraj goes further, seeking to clarify the nature and characteristics of this exegetical technique in its Sufi context. In the chapter entitled Kitab al-mustanbatat, al-Sarraj offers the following definition:

Mustanbatat are what is extracted by those among men of understanding who have attained truth (al-mutahaqqiqun). [It is gained] by being in accord with God's Book concerning what is explicit and what is implicit in it; by following in the footsteps of God’s Messenger, peace be upon him, inwardly and outwardly; and by acts of worship [inspired] by it which they carry out in their exteriors and their interiors.³³

In al-Sarraj's definition we encounter a different epistemology from the one we have seen above: the knowledge which he promulgates is derived neither by means of speculation nor through outwardly following the religious authorities; rather, it is inspirational knowledge, the product, or the bequest, of a devotional way of life in both its outward and inward dimensions. His is a call to an all-encompassing inner-outer harmonization at all levels of worship. True understanding, to al-Sarraj, is neither the product of deductive- analogical reasoning (ra ’y, nazar, qiyas), nor of an unconditional acceptance (taqlid) of authoritative pronouncements, nor of consensus (ijma‘, but of a devotional adherence to scripture and tradition to which inner work is added. Complete devotional adherence is the prerequisite to attaining a higher kind of knowledge - mystical knowledge, the knowledge of the hearts, which, in its turn, amplifies the practical aspects of devotion. We are entering here the arena of exclusive mystical epistemology, in which meaningful insights (mustanbataf) into Qur'anic verses or prophetic traditions cannot be achieved by ordinary, cognitive means but are divinely inspired. They are given by hints and allusions whose deciphering is the domain of a select few only. Even the ‘llama, the religious scholars, who are revered by the entire nation, are excluded, unless it is granted to them by God's grace. In al-Sarraj's words:

When they worship [God] according to what they know, God bequeaths to them (warathahum) the knowledge of what they do not know, that is, the knowledge of allusion, the knowledge of the bequeathed acts of worship ( ‘ilm mawarith al­a ‘mal); God reveals it to the hearts of his pure and chosen ones. It contains hidden meanings, concealed subtleties and secrets, wondrous sciences and rare portions of wisdom [concerning the] meanings of the Qur'an and the reports concerning God’s Messenger; [and all these] according to their [mystical] states, their moments [of mystical experiences] and the purity of their remembrances [of God].^[30]

On the face of it, al-Sarraj may be understood to have given istinbat a new meaning, in a way that may justify Nwyia's understanding of the Sufi appropriation of istinbat as a term designating their special mystical exegesis (see above, p. 1). But, effectively, in all contexts, istinbat remains a kind of drawing out, reading into, explicating, extrapolating - whether by means of speculation, canonization of meanings, insight, or by way of divine inspiration. Typologically, there cannot be said to be an istinbat which is specifically Sufi. Mystical knowledge as such is not synonymous with istinbat, and the term mustanbatat, even according to al-Sarraj himself, applies to a variety of categories of commentary-making. The difference between general istinbat and Sufi istinbat is that behind the latter lies a programme of arduous practices designed for cultivating the inner, psychological senses, making them ready to receive and internalize hidden truths. This clearly transpires from the following citation:

The jurists and scholars in the cities of Islam have a ready stock of famous insights (mustanbatat mash hura) on Qur'anic verses and on explicit reports [concerning the Prophet], upon which they draw in polemical exchanges with one another over controversial issues [...]. So it is also with the people of kalam and rational speculation. Their rational arguments, which are also insights (mustanbatat), are approved and accepted by their associates... However, far better than these are the insights (mustanbatat) of the men of [mystical] knowledge^[31] and those who draw close to God through supererogatory acts of worship, the people of ultimate truths. [For them, insights] are the result of knowledge, verification, sincerity in their acts of self exertion, self disciplining and [voluntary] worship.^[32]

So what is specific to Sufi understanding? What al-Sarraj terms mustanbatat in the Sufi context is clearly not the product of human mental activity but rather the product of the mystical experiences, in which God's hidden realm is disclosed to the internal organs known as 'the eyes and the ears of the heart'. An understanding of this kind is contingent on the mystical state of the Sufi to whom God's disclosure is bestowed and on his/her spiritual preparedness: "according to their [mystical] states, their moments [of mystical experiences] and the purity of their remembrances [of God]." In other words, inasmuch as the levels of the individual experiences differ from one another, so also the levels, or depths, of understanding, whence the notion of the countless faces of possible understandings. In this semantic perspective there is hardly any room left for collective consensus or normative authority. Each and every aspirant (murid), who truly seeks to attain knowledge of God according to the Sufi perspective, must strive to develop the inner qualities which will enable him/her to understand the sacred words, in a way compatible with their individual state at any given moment. These are the ‘mystical moments,’ the ahwaland awqat, the changing experiences that transcend time and that confer different aspects of understanding. From this perspective, the murid is called upon to commit himself to a way of life that includes practices which go beyond the prescribed religious duties, the fariiid Part of the devotional curriculum is to develop an ability to •._<i37T._<idr* listen attentively when exposed to verses and traditions orally recited. In the Sufi

stations of faith" (ùAi^l OUjL           Iíaj ajs^Ulij CLLj ojaÜ aj*J| ^jSj jIjS^ Jc. jjSll LLmJ :¿y^Jl jLá) - al-

Sulami, Haqaiqal-tafsir, vol. 1, p. 157.

³⁷       On this issue, see al-Sarraj’s formulation in the next chapter of Kitab al-luma ‘ "On the variability of the insights of men of truth" (<5jS^!I JaÍ ¿J kïi.<. Ui^üVI ÍjsjS ._L ): "Like men of external [knowledge], they, too, have different insights; however, differences in the knowledge of the former lead to erroneous judgment, while differences in internal knowledge does not do so, since [it is based on] graces, good and noble qualities, [mystical] states, character traits, stations and ranks" - <_!*í ^iiüLS jW’S* ^*j programme that leads to understanding, attentive listening, therefore, is one of the first steps to be taken. It is one of the first practices that the aspirant should adopt and accomplish in exerting himself to the gaining of a profound and all-inclusive understanding of scripture and tradition. A discussion of mystical understanding and exegesis should start, therefore, in elaborating the practice of listening, istima‘. No wonder that al-Sarraj devotes several sections of the Kitab al-luma ‘ to discussing this practice.^{[33] [34]} We shall review al-Sarraj’s material below as part of a broader discussion of the practice of listening.

c.    The practice of listening (istima') leading to mystical understanding

The nature and method of correct listening occupies a central place in Sufi literature, especially in the context of discussing and interpreting Qur'anic verses. As we shall see, listening in the Sufi context is not merely a sensory or mental act, but rather a contemplative practice. This practice, if correctly performed, may lead to a mystical experience; the mystical experience, in turn, may lead to a direct understanding of God’s words, an immediate understanding that bypasses and transcends external exegetical mediation. This is borne out by Qur'anic verses. The main axis around which the passages presented below revolve is the verse "Surely in that there is a reminder to him who has a heart, or will give ear with a present mind" [Ç (50):37].^[35] The choice of this verse by many Sufi authors is not fortuitous. Even a cursory scrutiny of the key words in it - 'reminder' (dhikra), 'heart' (qalb), 'giving ear' (ilqa^}alsam‘ and 'witness' (shahid) - establishes why Sufi authors and compilers chose it as their starting point in discussing the ethical, didactic and mystical components of Sufi exegesis. Remembrance, the heart, attentiveness and witnessing - all of which allude to contemplative practices - form the bedrock of the Sufi tradition.

As is chronologically fit, we shall begin our discussion of this verse with Kitab al-rí‘aya li-huquq allah (Watchfulness in Observing God's Duties) by al-Harith ibn Asad al- Muhasibi (d. 243/857).^[36] Al-Muhasibi, an early author from Baghdad, developed a psychological-ethical doctrine which emphasizes the need for a systematic programme of inner self-scrutiny and self-improvement as a prerequisite for attaining the most accomplished type of worship. Sufis throughout the Muslim world have studied the theory and practice laid down in his teachings. They have adopted his ethical- psychological precepts and terminology (we shall briefly discuss its possible Christian antecedents below, around notes 72-76) and have developed it in many subsequent treatises and compilations. His fundamental distinction between ‘the worship of the limbs’ (a ‘malal-jawaríh) and ‘the worship of the hearts’ (a ‘malal-qulub) had far- reaching repercussions also for Jewish seekers in the Middle Ages.^[37] The introduction to his book is in the form of a dialogue between a teacher and his disciple. Before taking up his teaching, the author demands of his real or fictitious disciple complete attentiveness. In al-Muhasibi own words: "Before I answer your questions, I would urge you to pay
proper attention in order that by it you may gain understanding of all that God asks of you".^[38] True attentiveness implies not only listening with one’s ears, but also with one’s heart and mind and corresponds to the disciple’s earnest willingness to internalize the explanations to his questions offered by the master. This demand al-Muhasibi bases on the aforementioned verse (50:37). The exegetes, says al-Muhasibi, equate heart with intellect ( ‘aql)^[39] As for the rest of the verse, al-Muhasibi invokes Mujahid, an early exegete,^{[40] [41] [42]} who interprets ‘witness’ (shahid) as "one whose heart is present" (shahidal- qalb),⁴ who "does not converse with his self at all" (la yuhaddithu nafsahu bi-shay’, and "whose heart is not absent [due to inattentiveness]" (wa-laysa bi-ghahbal-qalb)⁴ Al- Muhasibi adds:

He who, out of yearning for God, listens to God's Book, or to a word of wisdom, or to a portion of knowledge, or to a piece of counsel while not conversing with his self at all but [concentrating] his attention and allowing his heart to see what he hears, such a one will derive counsel and remembrances [from the words he hears], for they are God's words.^[43] God described the believers [as listeners] and commanded them [to listen] saying: "My servants who give ear to the Word and follow the fairest of it. Those are they whom God has guided; those - they are men possessed of minds"^[44] [al-Zumar (39): 18].

The first practical prerequisite, then, for attaining true understanding in any learning process, is listening with full attentiveness to what is related, without being distracted by thoughts or inner chatter.

It is worth mentioning in passing that Sufism has developed complex techniques and rich terminologies for the cultivation of attention and awareness. But elaborating on this point will sidetrack us from the topic at hand.^[45] Rather, we shall move on chronologically and focus on the discussion of the value of attentive listening and of the ranks of those who possess it in Abu Nasr al-Sarraj's Kitab al-luma ‘. Like al-Muhasibï, al-Sarraj, too, dwells on the verses cited above - Q (50):37 and al-zumar (39):18. At the end of a chapter entitled "The ascending order of those who listen to God's speech and how they are ranked in their acceptance of God's speech" (Bab dhikr taiawutal-mustami‘in khitaba allah ta ‘ala wa-darajatihim fi qubülal-khitab), al-Sarraj invokes Qur’an 39:18 and queries the meaning of the phrase '[they] follow the fairest of it'. Surely, he demands, all of it is fair! Then he answers his own rhetorical question thus: "To 'follow the fairest of it (ahsanahii)' relates to those wonderous things which, during attentive listening, when one lends his ear with understanding and insight (al-fahm wal-istinbat), are revealed to the hearts."^[46] Al-Sarraj introduces here into the discourse on attentiveness and understanding a new interpretative dimension: that of the miraculous, the mystical and the revelatory. 'To follow the fairest of it,' according to him, does not refer to normative-ethical spheres, which, customarily, the adjective ‘hasarí (pleasing, fine, proper) signifies, but rather to the transcendental-experiential sphere, which may be attained in the states of true and complete attentivemness. Such a signification of the adjective and the verbal root from which it derives is bound up, no doubt, with the special implication of the verbal noun ihsan in Sufi vocabulary. According to Sufis’ evaluation and self-perception, in the canonical triad islam - Iman (faith) - ihsan, ihsan signifies the inner, altruistic level of worship. Ihsan, in fact, is what designates Sufis as God's chosen intimates. The triad islam - Iman - ihsan is borne out by a well known hadith, in which the prophet Muhammad is called by the angel Gabriel to clarify the meanings of these three aspects of worship. When it comes to ihsan, the Prophet says: "[Ihsanmeans] to worship God as though you see Him; for even if you do not see Him, He sees you."^[47] Al-Sarraj is evidently making use here of that semantic nexus of al-ahsan and ihsan in order to highlight the special merit and value of mystical listening, as a prologue to an extraordinary intimate relationship with God. He goes on discussing the sphere of mystical awareness also in the following chapter, entitled Bab fi-sharh istinbat ilqa^J al­sam ‘ wal-hudür bil-tadabbur ‘inda -l-tilawa wa-fahm al-khitab (Explaining the insight [that comes from] attentive listening and presence with reflection during the recitation and the understanding of the divine speech). Here al-Sarraj offers, in the name of Abu Sa‘id al-Kharraz (d. 279/899) - another early Sufi from Baghdad - an elaborate exegesis of the Qur'anic expression ilqa^}al-sam‘ 'giving ear', and its relationship to the Sufi phrase hudür ‘inda al-istimâ‘⁵ presence during listening. According to al-Kharraz, unwavering attention is a practice which, in several stages, brings about transcendental experiences: at

first, attentive listening is envisioned as listening to the Prophet; then, gradually, it becomes envisioned as listening to the angel Gabriel; then, finally, it culminates in the

hearing of God's words as if tangibly spoken by Him. This is the summit of the act of listening:

In the first stage of attentive listening to [the recitation of] the Qur'an, you hear it as if the Prophet, peace be upon him, were reading it before you. Then you ascend to a higher level and hear it as if it were spoken by the Angel Gabriel reciting it to the Prophet, peace be upon him [...] Then you ascend to an even higher stage than this and you hear the words as if spoken by Truth [...], as if you hear them from God; which is why [it says]: "Ha^}Mim³³ The sending down of the Book is from God the All-mighty, the All-knowing" [Ghafr (40):1-2].^{[48] [49] [50]}

Recalling the title of the chapter from which we are citing (...sharh istinbatilqa^Jal­sam ‘...), we are brought back from these transcendental heights to the former discussion

concerning istinbat. Clearly, by istinbatal-Sarraj insinuates the outcome of such deep and absorbed listening: this comes about as a form of understanding which emanates from

experiences transcending intellectual, or even intuitive, knowledge, and which derives from the mystical state of 'seeing' and 'hearing' the sphere of the divine unseen (al-

ghayb): "The interpretation of all this," says al-Sarraj, "is understood and drawn out (wa- sharh hadha kullihimaíhúm wa-mustanbaf) from God's words: '[those] who believe in the unseen.'"^[51] Still citing Abu Sa‘id al-Kharraz, al-Sarraj explains that what the 'unseen' stands for are the divine attributes, names and qualities which God may reveal to the hearts, but whose depths no one can fathom.^{[52] [53]} Attentive listening to the Qur'an in a state of presence may, it seems, culminate in awareness of the divine Presence and in witnessing God's unseen realm. Such awareness is the supreme goal of ritual listening that may lead to istinbat. But istinbatis not the experience as such. A precise reading of the relevant chapters in Kitab al-luma‘ shows that al-Sarraj distinguishes between the two: istinbat is a retrospective exegetical act; although inspired, it takes place subsequent to the immediate revelatory experience; as an interpretetive process it does not appear to be typologically different from non-Sufi cases of istinbat which we have examined. A fine example for al-Sarraj's employment of istinbat in the subtle, though rather conventional, sense of an exegetical tool is culled from another chapter of the Kitab al­luma — Bab dhikr al-sabiqin wal-muqairabin wal-abrar min tariq al-fahm wal-istinbat’’¹ (Concerning the precursors, the intimates and the pure of heart by means of understanding and insight). In this chapter, al-Sarraj attempts to explain the Qur'anic epithets sabiqun (the precursors), muqarrabun (the intimates), and abrar (the pure of heart), epithets which mark out the spiritual hierarchy of the friends of God. To do this he invokes the exegetical process of drawing out the meaning of one verse by juxtaposing it with another. From the perspective of orthodox methodology, this is an application of the

principle of ‘explaining the Qur'an by the Qur'an’ discussed above (see above, around note 29). In other words, what he presents as istinbat is an exegetical practice similar to that for which Abu ‘Abbas and his followers were highly praised, as we have seen above.^[54] In the final analysis, however, al-Sarraj's istinbat, unlike Abu ‘Abbas' and his followers', is not dependent upon accepted and revered traditions, but upon unique individual experiences to which the spiritual elite, and only they, may become exposed. The social, epistemological, and normative ramifications of an exegetical act that is based on individual experiences are far-reaching. Indeed, the ambivalence and concern as regards personal experiences, and especially as regards the validity of the understanding that they emanate, can be witnessed not only in scathing non-Sufi sources but in the Sufi literature itself.^[55] No doubt, exegesis which springs forth from an exposure to revelatory inspiration can be seen as provocative and subversive (in the eyes of orthodoxy) as well as deceptive and illusory (in the eyes of prudent Sufi authors). The anxiety which it elicits has contributed not only to bouts of admonitions and criticism in non-Sufi literature, but also, within Sufi study circles, to the development of frameworks in which the authoritative masters kept a tight rein over their overly ardent students. The caution and
watchfulness which such anxiety has produced are well reflected throughout al-Sarraj's compilation.^[56]

Let us move on. Attentive listening and what it entails are taken up also by Shihab al-Din Abu Hafs ‘Umar al-Suhrawardi (d. 632/1234) after whom (or after his uncle Abù al- Najïb) a Sufi order is named.^[57] He dedicates to it the second chapter of his important work ‘Awarífal-ma ‘aríf(Gifts of Awarenesses) and titles this chapter "On singling out Sufis as those who possess fine listening" (Fi takhsis al-süfyya bi-husn al-istima¹). ‘Awarífal-ma ‘arífis a highly regarded Sufi compilation that for many years used to be printed on the margins of al-Ghazali’s Ibya> ‘ulûm al-din or as an appendix to it.^[58] Al- Suhrawardi's discussion of the Sufi practice of intent listening to the sacred texts is a masterful tapestry weaving together verses, traditions and Sufi sayings with his own analyses, interpretations and teaching. In what follows I shall try to sample this rich tapestry.

The second chapter opens with the following statement: "the foundation of every good thing is fine listening (asaskullkhayrhusn al-istima¹)."^[59] This statement, to which we shall come back later, is juxtaposed to the verse "If God had known of any good in them He would have made them hear" [al-anfal (8):23],^[60] which an unnamed Sufi has explicated as follows: "The sign of the good listening is that God's servant listens while curbing his own qualities and attributes; he listens in truth to the Truth."^[61] Al-Suhrawardi

further explains that the Sufis and God's intimates, being aware that the words of God are directed at them, regard each verse as "one of the seas of knowledge." These seas, which each and every verse contains, encompass all types of knowledge, whether external or internal, plain or hidden. Pondering over a verse that urges one to perform a certain deed, if one draws from it the correct lesson, then this pondering (i‘tibar) becomes one of the gates to Paradise.^[62] For al-Suhrawardi, as for al-Sarraj, attentive listening to the Qur'an entails blocking the qualities of the personality while committing one's self to face God's words in a pure state of presence. Such mystical contemplation is the prerequisite for understanding God's words, for internalizing them and for applying them correctly in the sphere of religious activity. With al-Suhrawardi, too, the requirement of the appropriate attention is related to the verse "Surely in that there is a reminder to him who has a heart, or will give ear with a present mind" [Q (50):37], with which we began this section. The second chapter of ‘Awarífal-ma ‘arífrevolves mainly around this verse and its mystical- exegetical implications. In order to elucidate these implications, al-Suhrawardi invokes the interpretative sayings of earlier Sufis,^[63] such as al-Shibli (d. 334/945): "The lesson of the Qur'an [is given] to him whose heart is present with God and who is not distracted from Him for even a second."^[64] He likewise cites Yahya ibn Mu‘adh (d. 258/871) who says: "There are two hearts: a heart that is so full of worldly matters that when confronted with a matter relating to obedience [to God], it knows not what to do, so immersed is it in worldly matters; and a heart that is so full of next-world matters that when confronted with a worldly matter, it knows not what to do, so suffused is it with the next world."^[65]

Another Sufi, al-Husayn ibn Mansùr [al-Hallaj] (d. 309/922) says: "To him who has a heart into which nothing enters but the vision of God."^{[66] [67] [68] [69]} All these sayings revolve around the heart; the organ which, according to Sufi anthropology, is where the vision of the

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divine worlds takes place and hence the seat of mystical understanding. We saw above that al-Muhasibi (like al-Tustari) identified heart, qalb, with intellect, ‘aql, an identification that can be traced back to a long pre-Islamic literary tradition that stretches back to Late Antiquity and early scriptural sources. Tracing this tradition, however, is

72

beyond the scope of this paper. What is relevant here is to note that for most Sufis from the third/ninth century on, including al-Suhrawardi and seemingly at odds with al- Muhasibi, the vision and understanding of the heart were perceived as patently non­intellectual paths to knowledge. Nonetheless, al-Muhasibi’s works and ideas formed the foundation for the development of that particular mystical psychology of the heart which became the hallmark of the Sufi tradition. Interestingly, al-Muhasibi’s footprints can unmistakably be seen in the second chapter of Suhrawardï's ‘Awarífal-ma ‘arífwhich we are consulting. It seems likely that in editing this chapter, al-Suhrawardi had access to al- Muhasibi’s Kitab al-rí‘aya, for, in describing the distinction between the different kinds of ‘listeners,’ both the third/ninth century al-Muhasibi and the sixth/twelfth century al- Suhrawardi, support their teaching with a well-known parable culled from the New

73

Testament: the Parable of the Sower. This parable is found not only in three of the synoptic gospels, but also in the apocryphal Gospel of Thomas. In Kitab alri‘aya, as well as in ‘Awarif al-ma ‘arif this New Testament parable appears almost verbatim.^[70] Al- Muhasibi cites it in the name of "one of the sages" (ba ‘dal-hukamâ^>') who devised it, as it were, in order to exemplify "this entire topic" (li-dhalika kullihi), namely, the practice of correct listening.^{[71] [72] [73] [74]} Al-Suhrawardi, too, presents it as "a parable fashioned by one of the sages to portray the different ways in which people listen" (waqadmathala ba ‘dal- hukarmT taiawut al-nas ii al-istimâ¹)?⁶ Although al-Suhrawardi makes no mention of al- Muhasibi, the similar presentation and the almost identical text and context suggest that

he may have had access to al-Muhâsibî’s work. Discussing the infiltration and reception 77

of Christian literary sources in early Muslim literature is beyond the scope of this paper. Suffice it to say that in all likelihood Christian and other late antique traditions and dicta filtered into al-Muhâsibï's writing (as well as the writings of later authors) via ascetic and pietist circles, as well as via Arabic adab compilations. The literary genre known as adab absorbed pre-Islamic traditions on a large variety of topics, among which Christian traditions, especialy those deriving from monastic and ascetic sources, were widely and

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overtly collected. This is well-known and scholarly acknowledged. But al-Muhasibi and al-Suhrawardi do not make use of the Parable of the Sower for its literary collectible value. For both of them, the parable becomes part of a didactic portrayal of the nature of true listening, listening which becomes the fertile soil for an in-depth understanding of the words of God. What is noteworthy is that both authors make use of the parable for the practical lessons that can be derived from it. Neither al-Muhasibï nor al-Suhrawardï shows any awareness of the Christian background of this paradigm. Yet it is clear that via their literary and pedagogic activities, in particular those of al-Muhasibï, this and other didactic paradigms penetrated into the Sufi practical sphere of mystical education; they were integrated into the Sufi systematic programme of inner self-improvement, and did not remain literary topoi only. When we consider the influence that al-Muhasibï's psychological and practical paradigms exerted upon circles of Jewish pietists (often termed ‘Jewish Sufis’) in the Middle Ages, it becomes evident that we have at hand an interesting topic from a historical-comparative perspective. This, however, calls for a separate discussion (see also above, around note 41).

In keeping with his role as a Sufi master, al-Suhrawardï concludes that true attention to the words of God, in which the ear hears and the heart sees and which generates understanding and action, is the listening typically practiced by Sufis. On this point, al- Suhrawardï goes further than al-Muhasibï. While the latter emphasizes the didactic- ethical implications of listening and understanding, al-Suhrawardï, like al-Sarraj before him, emphasizes their mystical implications, namely the divine inspiration and revelation stimulated by them, whereby the heart witnesses directly, with no intermediary, the hidden meanings of the words of God or the traditions of the Prophet. This revelatory inspiration, according to al-Suhrawardï, is the platform from which an even higher level
of understanding can be attained, for those who have surpassed the bounds of the mystical experience.

Like al-Muhasibi and al-Sarraj, al-Suhrawardi, too, sees understanding as the goal of attentive listening. But this sought for understanding is not limited to the intellectual or practical levels alone. As is evinced by the dicta he cites from earlier Sufis, the sought for understanding is complex and comprehensive, encompassing all the meanings contained within the divine word, external as well as internal. Such an understanding captures, in a single moment, all that can be gleaned from the divine word. The seeker who achieves such an understanding is not only 'listening' to the spoken words of God, but is also ‘witnessing' the divine realm. True listening implies witnessing (mushahada): "The Sufi’s heart is empty of all transient things; he 'lends his ear' and allows his eyes to witness. He hears the audible, sees the visible and witnesses the witnessed."⁷⁹ In such attentive states, witnessing is merged with listening, and may even pre-determine it: "As they witness",

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writes al-Suhrawardi, "they also listen." All this is explicitly expressed in association with the Qur'anic verse that served as the spring board for previous discussions: "Surely in that there is a reminder to him who has a heart, or will give ear with a present mind" [Ç(50):37]. In order to explain the term dhikra (reminder) in the verse, al-Suhrawardi cites the Sufi Abu Bakr al-Wasitï⁸¹ (d. ca. 320/932), who seeks to emphasize the transcendent and timeless existence of those mystics who hear and witness God's words without mediation. Al-Wasitï says: "[As for] ‘reminder,’ it is a reminder for special people (li-qaum makhsüsïn), not for everyone. As for ‘those who have a heart,’ the verse

‘Awarif al-ma‘arif p. 18.

⁸⁰                          |lj-^ UJs - ibid.

⁸¹        On Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Mûsâ al-Wasitï al-Farghani, see al-Sulami, Tabaqâtal-sufiyya, pp. 302­307.

alludes to those who have a heart in the eternal world. They are alluded to also by another verse: "Why, is he who was dead, and We gave him life" [al-an‘am (6):122].'"^[75] In his interpretation, al-Wasitï joins verse 50:37 with 6:122 adding, as it were, the new life motif into the process of mystical understanding. The scheme that could be sketched here is the following: attentive listening > understanding > < witnessing > new life on a higher platform. But here, according to another statement by al-Wasitï which al-Suhrawardi cites, the epistemological process may become obstructed: mystical witnessing (mushahada) exerts such a powerful psychological impact that it numbs and circumvents understanding: "Witnessing brings about amazement while concealment brings about understanding, because when God most High reveals Himself to a thing, the thing submits to Him and humbles itself before Him."^[76] It transpires, according to al-Wasitï, that mystical revelations do not go hand in hand with understanding, because witnessing (mushahada) paralyzes understanding. Only when the experience passes, in the ensuing state of divine concealment (istitai), can understanding return. Al-Suhrawardi disagrees. Al-Wasitï’s contention, he says, is true only in relation to people (aqwam) who are unable to withstand the intensity of the mystical experience. But there are those who are able, and for them witnessing and understanding can be maintained in tandem.^[77] He names
such people arbab al-tamkin, namely, those who possess balance and stability. In deep states, the witnessing-listener may indeed become overpowered by mystical intoxication (sukr al-hal) and even by loss of consciousness, a state known as ghayba. In this state the contents of the words listened to can become submerged in the mystical witnessing and no room is left for understanding (fhm). Such a listener, says al-Suhrawardi, is prone to talwin - the oscillation from one intense state to another. But there exists another kind of listener, who possesses tamkin, the antithesis of talwin. For the masters of tamkin, listening and witnessing do not cancel each one out; their separate existences continue side by side and they confer their different wisdoms and benefits upon each other: "listening has its wisdom and benefit, and witnessing has its wisdom and benefit."^[78] Those who listen from the position of stability and permanence, attributes which characterize the most sincere followers of the Sufi path,^[79] do so in a state of sobriety (sahw) and their listening is commensurate to understanding. Moreover, this kind of understanding takes the form of an intimate discourse with God, that is to say, it emanates from God directly: "The place of understanding is where discourse and dialogue [with God] are located."^[80] Consequently, al-Suhrawardi explains the revival motif in 6:122 (see above, around note 82) as referring to this type of sober and enduring
understanding, the product of direct divine inspiration (ilham).⁸ Such understanding requires 'an existential receptacle' (wi‘a^} wujudi), a special supra-sensory organ, to be located within the physical body, by which to receive and contain the divine inspiration that yields understanding. Such a subtle receptacle is created for the masters of tamkin, those who have transcended the state of mystical intoxication and annihilation, and it is this to which the verse alludes as a new, or second, creation. In the state of sobriety (sahw) and permanence (baqi), these masters awaken to a new life:^{[81] [82]}

The hearing in a state of sobriety and stability does not disappear by witnessing, because the hearer holds on to the forelock of the mystical state. He understands what is spoken by means of an existential receptacle that is designed for this purpose.

Understanding is the locus to which inspiration and listening descend; they require an existential vessel. This existence is granted to the master of tamkin and is created for him as a second creation in the state of sobriety. The existence of such a one, who has crossed over from the state of fanii (annihilation) to the state of baqi (permanence), does not wane when the lights of witnessing shine.^[83]

Evidently, for al-Suhrawardi, the process leading from listening to witnessing to inspiration and thence to an understanding of the divine word - this process may, indeed, come to a fruitful conclusion in spite of the intensity of the experience or its transiency. He clearly belongs among the "sober" Sufis.

Having established the viability of such an epistemological-mystical process, he continues his exegetical discussion by following up the motif of the new creation of this 'existential receptacle'. He does so by associating Qur'an 6:122 with another Qur'anic verse in which a new life is referred to - al-aníal (8):24: "O believers, respond to God and the Messenger when He calls you unto that which will give you life."^[84] But revival is not the only link of relevance here. When citing 8:24, al-Suhrawardi clearly has in mind its neighboring verse, 8:23, which was one of the starting points of all this lengthy discourse on the nature of true listening - "If God had known of any good in them He would have made them hear."^[85] The proximity of these two verses allows al-Suhrawardi to make a semantic link: the new life is, in fact, the 'revival' granted to the good listener. This explains why "the foundation of every good thing is fine listening" (see above, around note 63). The nature of this new life is explicated by a saying of al-Junayd (d. 297/910), the leader of the Baghdadi Sufi circle in the third/ninth century: "They live eternally through the Living who has never ceased nor will He ever cease."^[86] The new life eternal, we are made to understand, is neither terrestrial nor life after death, but the inner, mystical life which is lived in a divine timelessness at the moment of true listening. We have seen here an exegetical tour-de-force which al-Suhrawardï conducts in order to convey the significance, and even the magnitude, of the practice of attentive listening: it is the proviso not only for the truthfulness and validity of mystical understanding, but for mystical life itself. But this tour-de-force does not end here. Verse 8:23, the last in the cluster of verses dealing with listening, understanding and the mystical life, allows al- Suhrawardi to take up again its adjacent verse 8:24: "O, believers, respond to God and the Messenger when He calls you unto that which will give you life." It is the idiom 'respond' (istajibu) which intrigues him now. He cites it with an interpretation by Ahmad ibn ‘Ata’

(d. ca. 309/922), another member of al-Junayd’s circle and a renowned Qur'anic

exegete,^[87] who suggests that it should be understood in four exegetical ways:

Understanding the ‘response' (istijabâ) in this verse is according to four aspects: first, a response out of unity (ijabat al-tawhid); second, a response out of verification (ijabat al-tahqiq); third, a response out of surrender (ijabatal-taslim); fourth, a response out of coming close (ijabat al-taqrib)^[88]

This four-level understanding of 'response' in Ibn ‘Ata"s interpretation correlates, according to al-Suhrawardi, to a well-known exegetical method, in terms of which every Qur'anic expression should be understood in four different aspects ( wujüh) or interpretative levels: zahr-the external or literal aspect; bain - the internal or homiletic aspect; hadd - the normative or legalistic aspect; and, lastly, muttala ‘- the contemplative aspect.^[89] The tradition that promotes this fourfold method, according to al-Suhrawardi, was trasmitted by Hasan al-Basrï (or, according to some, by Ibn Mas‘ùd), in a chain that goes back to the Prophet himself. It runs as follows: "No verse of the Qur’an came down without having both an exterior and an interior. Each word [in it] has a limit (hadd), and each limit has a vantage point (muttalaⁱ)."⁹'¹ The reading and rendition of the terms employed in the various versions of this tradition are not plain or straightforward.

Especially problematic is the term spelled M-T-L-‘, which can be read either as matla ‘ (rise, incline) or as muttala ‘ (elevated viewing point). According to Lisan al- ‘arab, and following it Lane's dictionary, it should probably be read muttala ‘ although the reading matla‘is also attested to.^{[90] [91] [92]} Goldziher supports the reading of muttalaAs for al- Suhrawardi, it is unclear whether he reads matla ‘ or muttala ‘ but, whatever his reading, it is obvious that he takes this term to signify a lofty epistemological position, a vantage point from where God's words are observed and contemplated from a position of hightened awareness. Now al-Suhrawardi's exegetical move is to relate the 'response' of 8:24 to both listening and understanding, which - lest one forgets - are the issues at the core of his discussion. "The matla  he says, "is a slope upon which one climbs by virtue

of his awareness of the divine knowledge. Hence, matla ‘ is the understanding [that
comes] through God's opening granted to every heart in accordance with the light that nourishes it."^[93]

Tying up the different strands of his discourse, al-Suhrawardi has this to say about the place and meaning of 'response' in his scheme:

Response is proportionate to listening; listening is where understanding is; understanding is proportionate to the awareness of the significance of speech; awareness of speech is proportionate to the awareness and knowledge of the speaker. Understanding has countless faces, because the faces of [the divine] speech are countless. God most High said: 'Say, if the sea were ink for the Words of my Lord, the sea would be spent before the Words of my Lord are spent, though We brought replenishment the like of it' [al-kahf(18):109]. For in each and every word in the Qur'an God most High has [multiple] words, which would not dry up even if the sea dried up. The entire divine speech is but one word from the perspective of the essence of Divine Unity, while from the perspective of the breadth of everlasting knowledge, each word is [many] words.^[94]

From an epistemological perspective, this is al-Suhrawardï's clue, or 'response,' to the enigma of unity and multiplicity at the level of mystical understanding. Although God's words spring forth from an essential oneness, grasping the divine speech means allowing it to splinter into countless shards of details, perspectives and intuitions, not so much in proportion to mental capacities as in accordance with the intensity and measure of the divine light which the heart, or the subtle organ within the physical heart designated as an 'existential receptacle', receives and can sustain.^[95] This conclusion is substantiated by the distinction he proposes between tafsirand ta ’wil. Tafsir, al-Suhrawardï says, is a well- bounded and delineated knowledge hemmed in by the canonical sources, while ta ’wil, the inner meaning of the verse, is an open-ended knowledge.^[96] Although its veracity is

measured by its compatibility with the Qur'an and the Sunna, this knowledge is, by definition, fluid and multi-faceted and it varies according to the seeker’s inner state and the degree of his mystical preparedness:

There is a difference between tafsirand ta ’wil. Tafsiris the knowledge of the coming down of the verse, its contents, its narrative, the circumstances in which it came down - and in such matters one may not say anything unless one has heard it or received it by [authoritative] tradition. Ta ’wil, on the other hand, is the inclination of the verse toward a sustainable meaning, provided that that sustainable meaning, which one beholds, is compatible with the Book and the Sunna. Therefore, ta ’wil varies inasmuch as the seeker’s state varies - in respect, as we have said above, of the purity of his understanding, the level of his awareness and the position of his closeness to God most High.^[97]

This, then, is the understanding that has countless faces which is sought for by the Sufi masters. If the Sufi is a true 'master of intent' (sahib himma'), says al-Suhrawardi, he is called upon to understand the subtle meanings and fine nuances hidden in the divine speech from within his heart, where that 'existential vessel', that supra-sensory organ, created purposely for the reception and accommodation of such understanding, resides. By withdrawing from the world and by emptying his heart of anything other than God, the 'master of intent' stands, vis-à-vis each verse, at a new vantage point (matla‘ or muttala ‘; then, when he listens to the recited verse, he ‘sees’ it and ‘understands’ it from the countless perspectives that can be viewed at such vantage points.

Now, to this elevated scheme al-Suhrawardï adds another rung, that of religious activity, which, no doubt, is intrinsically associated with the notion of 'response.' Each new understanding, he says, breeds a new devotional act. An ongoing feedback is thus constellated between understanding the divine speech and the response to it by means of religious acts. Let us reconsider the scheme drawn above (around notes 82-83), comprising the following rungs: attentive listening > understanding > < witnessing cum understanding > the creation of a new existential receptacle and a new life. All these, as we have seen, make up the process that leads to a deep, direct and multifaceted understanding of the divine word (see above, around notes 36-37, 101). But here it is recapitualated with an additional rung, which, needless to say, brings the whole process back to the sphere of normative acts in which, when understanding is present, the inner dimension is never missing:

Their understanding calls [the Sufis] to action; action, on its part, brings on the purity of understanding and the subtlety of contemplation over the meanings of the divine speech. From understanding, knowledge derives and from knowledge, action. Thus, knowledge and action follow one another intermittently. Action, at the outset, is the action of the heart; the action of the heart is not the action of the container (i.e., the body) ... whenever they carry out one of these actions [of the heart], a [new] knowledge is lifted up for them, and they climb to a new vantage point vis-à-vis the understanding of the verse.^[98]

It would seem that here the process has come full circle and that, through al-Suhrawardi's detailed description, we have had access to a teaching which is at one and the same time solid, sober, practical as well as mystical and subtle. But it turns out that this is no watertight circle. All this process, implies al-Suhrawardi, pertains to mystical understanding that, albeit subtle and elevated, can be encompassed, at least in states of sobriety, by the mystic's consciousness. It seems, however, that a kind of uncertainty creeps into al-Suhrawardi's analysis. He is aware that, in his claim for sobriety and stability, he may be ignoring an even higher mystical phenomenon, when listening and contemplation lead to states that are beyond consciousness, states in which witnessing remains a pure experience of the divine speaker transcending both description and cognitive understanding. He writes:

My innermost is troubled: perhaps the vantage point (al-mutalla ‘ does not refer to grasping the subtle meaning and the concealed secret hidden in the verse with pure understanding; rather, perhaps it means that, in each verse, at the elevated point, a witnessing occurs of He who speaks the verse. For in each verse one of God's attributes and qualities is stored, and when a person recites and listens to the verses, new divine revelations keep visiting him, and they become like a mirror announcing He who possesses that tremendous majesty.^[99]

The author facing, it seems, anecdotal evidence concerning highly regarded personalities, wishes to add to his discourse another, higher, dimension of mystical experiences associated with listening: he wishes to clarify his hesitancy by distinguishing between mystical understanding that comes from listening and the apotheosis of this mystical experience, in which the verses listened to invoke the divine qualities and attributes as tangible objects of witnessing. At such an experience, he says, the verses become like mirrors through which what can be seen are the divine qualities and attributes themselves, and, behind them, the divine speaker Himself. Thus, despite al-Suhrawardi’s previous statements regarding the ‘master of balance,’ whose understanding is not annihilated by the mystical experience, he nevertheless concedes the existence of an even higher vantage point at which cognitive paralysis, or even loss of consciousness, may ensue.^[100] This, according to al-Suhrawardi, is evinced by a tradition reported on Ja‘far al-Sadiq (d. 148/765), the sixth Shi‘ite Imam, whose Qur'an exegesis (or, at least, the exegesis attributed to him) pervades Sufi literature, in particular its exegetical literature, from which Ja‘far's statements are rarely missing:^[101]

God reveals himself to his servants through his words, but they do not see. In this sense, each verse has a vantage point (mutalla ‘. Limit (hadd) is the limit of speech and the vantage point (mutalla ‘ is the ascent to what is beyond [the limit of] speech, to seeing the one who speaks.^[102] It is related that once during prayer Ja‘far swooned. When he was asked about it he said: I kept reciting the verse again and again until I heard it from the mouth of He whose word it is.^[103]

Al-Suhrawardï's in-depth discussion, to sum up, teaches that attentive listening of Qur'anic verses is an ultimate prerequisite for the understanding of its subtle meanings, as well as for genuine devotional worship and, finally, for the transcendent experience of the divine manifestations. This is a highly dynamic and open-ended portrayal of what understanding of the Qur'an implies; it is an understanding that is constantly renewed, and whose perspectives are continually changing. This kind of understanding is not dependent on the interpretations of people of authority, but on divine grace and inner work. Both divine grace and inner work take place in the arena of the individual mystic's inwardness. Inner work, in particular, is the individual Sufi's voluntary efforts above and beyond the canonical duties. They are designed to prepare his interior for the creation and lodging of that subtle receptacle, the innermost heart, without which the effects and understandings deriving from the mystical experience cannot become registered in his constitution. This preparatory work starts with listening, which, in turn, hones and deepens understanding. In order to withstand the intensity of the ecstasy that may be engendered by the mystical experience of listening, understanding and witnessing, balance and equilibrium are required. The above notwithstanding, there are instances in which even the greatest and most accomplished masters of stability undergo in their contemplation a cognitive annihilation, when the intensity of the revelatory experience lifts them to the threshold of the divine presence itself.

d.    Conclusion

This paper started as an innocuous investigation of istinbat, the term that was suggested as the denomination for the specific and mystical Qur'an exegesis of the Sufis. It turned out to be the platform from which to consider not only the term and its usages in Sufi as well as in non-Sufi sources, but to unravel, beyond the terminology, the phenomenology of mystical exegesis and understanding as such. It brought to the fore a practice which is seldom discussed in scholarly works on Sufism: the practice of listening, without which, we learn, true understanding cannot be gained. The three main sources from which I have culled the relevant material afforded an opportunity to follow the intense relationship that exists for the Sufi authors between the art of listening to sacred texts and the way in which an inner mode of understanding is developed, understanding which is subtle, mystical and individual, but at the same time also devotional and practical. Some general conclusions of this investigation can be summed as follows:

In the fourth/tenth century, during the consolidation of the Sufi doctrine, language and literature, and as part of the development of Islamic mystics' self-awareness, an attempt was made by certain authors to introduce a term by which to distinguish the Sufi exegetical method from non-Sufi ones. This attempt, however, was hardly successful. The use by al-Sarraj and al-Khargushi and, to a certain extent, by other Sufi authors, of derivatives of istinbat testifies to this attempt. Conceivably, Sufi authors wished to distinguish their mystical understanding of the inner, batin, aspects inhered within the sacred texts, from the sectarian Batini exegesis of the Shi‘a and its Isma'ili offshoots, since these too, as the designation Batiniyya testifies, address the inner, hidden aspects of the canonical texts. This attempt - mainly, it seems, made by al-Sarraj - to introduce the terms istinbat or mustanbatat into the Sufi lexicon, may have been facilitated by the generally positive and non-polemical way in which these terms were used by orthodox Muslim scholars. As we have seen, some well-known orthodox scholars employed istinbat benevolently, to describe the early revered exegetes’ ability to explain the sacred verses through a wise, perhaps intuitive, process that offered exegetical and juridical options, which could not be derived from a literal interpretation of these texts. No doubt, the lexical associations of istinbat with an inner, intuitive mode of understanding, may also lie at the background of the attempt to introduce this term into Sufi terminology.^[104] But, to the best of my understanding, there is no evidence in the available literary material that istinbat took root as a term specific to Sufi exegetical method. Nwyia’s statement, therefore, which was our initial inquiry, must be qualified. Istinbat, although testified in Sufi literature - in particular in the context of Sufi mystical-intuitive understanding - never became a term denoting Sufi exegesis as such, or distinguishing it from other, non-Sufi, exegetical methods.

It should be added that modern scholarly literature bears witness, ex silentio, to the fact that istinbat has not been integrated into the exegetical literature as a technical term in its own right.^[105] Nwyia’s statement can, perhaps, be seen in the context of the work of R.A. Nicholson. In the introduction to his The Mystics of Islam, Nicholson discusses the term and explains it as "a sort of intuitive deduction; the mysterious inflow of divinely revealed knowledge into hearts made pure by repentance and filled with the thought of God, and the outflow of that knowledge upon the interpreting tongue."^[106] It is noteworthy that Nicholson’s monograph was published in 1914, the year in which his edition of Abu Nasr al-Sarraj’s Kitab al-luma‘ also appeared.^[107] Possibly, out of familiarity with the text he had edited, in which, as we saw, istinbat and its derivatives are profusely represented and discussed, Nicholson inserted this term into the introduction of his monograph on Muslim mystics, thereby paving the way for Nwyia’s overstated conclusion.

But beyond the terminology, I have found the deep interest that Sufi authors show in probing the nature of mystical exegesis worth following. In scrutinizing sections from al- Muhasibi’s Kitabal-rí‘aya, as well as chapters from al-Sarraj’s Kitabal-luma‘and Abu Hafs al-Suhrawardi’s ‘Awarífal-ma ‘aríf I have outlined their assiduous attempts at combining an orthodox reading of the Qur'an with a mystical experiential listening to it. From the latter derive the individual understandings of the text, which are based on witnessing the countless divine manifestations stored within it. These attempts at reconciling the mystical with the normative are not, in my opinion, merely apologetic, as they are often portrayed in the scholarly literature. Rather, they reflect the wish to draw - alongside the traditional canon - another canon which outlines the inner life, without which, according to the Sufis, a comprehensive understanding of the sacred texts and the duties to which they urge, is not attainable. The coming together of these two canons, or paths, can be seen in the following statement by Ibn ‘Ata’,^[108] whose interpretation of yastanbitünahuin 4:83 is documented in al-Sulami’s Haqâïq al-tasfsir.

If only [those who listened to the Qur'an] in seeking [God] would take the path of the Sunna and the way of the dignitaries (i.e., the great Sufi masters), they would be raised to high ranks of faith, in which the ranks of intuition (maqamat al- islinbât) and the path of [divine] revelations dwell.^[109]

For the Sufis, therefore, a blind acceptance of the orthodox exegetical tradition is not sufficient in order to understand the sacred speech. The sources we have examined unanimously claim that a proper understanding of the Book of God is contingent on the interplay between the meticulous observance of the religious law sanctified by tradition and general consensus, on the one hand, and on the development of individual inner abilities, on the other. When the mystics consciously attain spiritual heights through attentiveness to, and contemplation of, the words of God, they resemble the Prophet Muhammad when divine revelations came down upon him, or the Prophet’s companions, who claimed to see God in every situation and in every place. What the mystic sees and hears at such times is unique and boundless. According to the Sufi authors, the intuitions that stem from these vital, individual experiences have special epistemological value because they originate directly from the divine source as constantly renewed understandings. This is not absolute truth concerning the divine ineffable essence, but rather the cognitive absorption of the multifaceted divine aspects which are revealed to the innermost heart of the attentive listener.

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^[1] "...quand les soufis eux-mêmes parlent de leur méthode, ils ne l’appellent ni tafsirni ta ’wilmais istinbat. mot d’origine coranique, préféré par eux pour mieux se distinguer des autres" — Paul Nwyia, Exégèse coranique et langage mystique, p. 34. See also idem, Trois oeuvres, pp. 25-26.

^[2] See al-Sarraj, Kitâb al-luma‘, pp. 105-119.

^[3] See al-Khargushi, Tahdhib al-asrâr, pp. 198-212.

^[4] See íjá^^ll ^£ ajjUJl SKAJl Üál'VI ^gi m9 j^^SAJl je jLJl MA in al-Sarraj, Kitab al-luma ‘ pp. 333­374; istinbatand its derivatives do not appear in the list. Cf., however, j^l ^táll il_r^l ^                       ub ibid, pp.

80-81 ; also, -U-üi^Vlj ^l        J^ jlj$lj jjjjSJlj JjsjLuJI jSl ^Ij, ibid, pp. 90-92, and esp. the section entitled

^ M’“’*'l MA comprising five chapters, ibid, pp. 105-119.

^[5] On the special place of al-Sarraj and Kitab al-luma ‘ in modern research, see below, around notes 111-112.

^[6] See Lisan al- ‘arab, "Nabat," vol. 7, pp. 410 ff.: A2l tá^jjíj ...U^U ijj jáj oI3I jjJl                 ijjj ^SJI 4JI .kúlI

,aJ| U_i22Ij olikjiu.I ^i.

^[7] Ibid:          jjil L> JSj i^jj ijj.

^[8] Ibid: jIjA2uVI iq^'j'L       jA2^l Vt^j Ijjíj Uc. <1^ MuJj.

^[9] See Fahd, Toufic, "Riyâfa," El, vol. 8, p. 562; see also idem, "Un traité des eaux dans al-Filaha al- nabatiyya: hydrogéologie, hydraulique agricole, hydrologie."

^[10] See, for example, al-Kalabadhi, Kitab al-ta ‘arruf chapter 68, p. 117; al-Sarraj, Kitab al-luma ‘ p. 226; al-

Qushayri, al-Risala, p. 105; al-‘Ajam, Mawsùatmuslaiahat al-tasawwuf pp. 707-709. Cf. a saying attributed to Abu Sa‘id al-Kharraz (d. 279/899) in discussing the term firasa:"A mustanbitis one who always observes the hidden; from such a one nothing is hidden nor concealed" - 7 j 1-^                                                         N"‘“*'l

v^~               7 j              - al-Qushayri, al-Risala, bab al-firasa, p. 106.

^[11] See T. Fahd, La divination arabe, pp. 403 ff.

^[12] See Lisan al- ‘arab, "Nabat," vol. 7, p. 411.

^[13] ■‘A;           ¿LLJI <Siil ^|j| A-jâàll kñu.lj - ibid, p. 410; see also al-Razi, Malatih, vol. 10, p. 159.

^[14] "y3*             jjjil ^4*1       j2ÿl y j ylj Jj^jlI JI ojjj A Iy.|j| jyJt jI j^Vl                            y«-A I3Ij" (English

quotations from the Qur'an are based on Arberry, The Koran Interpreted).

AjU-*            A-~r: ^i              J»*j - see ibn Kathir’s tafsiron the verse; see also Abu ‘Ubayda (d.

210/825), Majazal-Qur’an, vol. 1, p. 134; see also the tradition concerning the circumstances in which the verse came down and ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab's, who transmitted the tradition, declaration: "I interpreted this matter by means of istinbat - j*Vl 413 ‘"'Avi.al d ^jSs, Muslim, Sahih, vol. 2, pp. 1105-1108 (Kitab al-talaq, 30).

^[16] Atta*             yJ^I jjlx* jcj JjjxII jt^jí je Ijádu* jl£ t^h ^jA.ua* JSj, see al-Tabari, Jami al-bayan, vol. 4,

p. 181. Cf. the usage adopted by Abu Nu‘aym al-Isfahani in concluding the chapters on the generations of the companions and successors: "Know that those mentioned above are among the companions and successors; among humans, they are similar to quarries and precious stones whose value and ranks are known only to the extractors [of treasures] (=al mustanbituii), to (deep-sea) divers, and to the dignitaries among leaders and men of distinction, for they were the pillars and foundation of the religion"

VI ^^tJ-j fjti. ÜJ.Í V j?.31I >IyJtj ¿JL*-JI J3-S ^UlI Ù-        ú^u ¿á*^I              > y>3 _fJ55 j¿31I J Ij^ioIj

— ¡jluVIj jjl ÓJl*C.Í IJl£ ^yV (^IjâJt 'ójAlI j* JjlSVlj ^IjllIj jjA'lbaJl Hilyatal-awliya’ vol. 6, p. 160. For a comprehensive discussion of the Qur'anic expression alladhina yastanbitunahuminhum and its exegetical and legalistic implications, see al-Razi, Mafatih, vol. 10, pp.

158-161.

^[17] See al-Jurjani, Kitab al-ta‘rilat, vol. 1, p. 216, No. 1098: ^31I JA1I Jx*lI Je. jjájlIj A^VI y «ñálI> _:JjSj

■iy^VIj JjlL           (*!=■ yj f^lt (J1*3j.

^[18] See Hajji Khalifa, Kashf al-zunün, vol. 1, p. 110; cf. ibn Khaldun, al-Muqaddima, vol. 3, p. 1046 (on the

science of fqh): "When laws are extrapolated from these proofs, this [act] is called t'iqli' - ft^Vl         jA2^l lli

Ljl Jjs 2JAl    ¿^; and later: "afterwards, the cities of Islam grew [.] [and the method] of extrapolation

(istinbat ) was consolidated, and [the knowledge] of jurisprudence matured into a profession and science" - A^j                  ^J^ij <sill J^Sj .LLuíuVI ¿£-jj ...f^^Vl jt^J Ouhr. £ see also J. Schacht, The Origins of

Muhammadan Jurisprudence, pp. 1, 134, et passim; idem, Introduction, ca. p. 60. On questions relating to legalistic terminology, see the comprehensive monograph by Bernard Weiss on al-Âmidi (d. 631/1233): Weiss, The search, Introduction, ca. p. 24. On istinbatas a deductive method adopted by mutakallimün of the Hanafi legal school, see al-Samarkandi, Abu Layth, Sharh al-Fiqh al-absat li-abi Hanifa, p. 69, line 195 - I am grateful to Professor E. Kohlberg for calling my attention to this reference.

^[19] See Ibn Khaldùn, al-Muqaddima, vol. 3, p. 1051:

'        ^litl jjSÍ ^Aj ...                    J-A^lj SjljQl 'À^otm Ji Aalt^ij J-ji^l qp «jAju      Jalá o j-lâ^s iJjj^ ci -^1 Ldá

. j£^í L, ^Liâll CP <jl| iOZ^'j'L          j QtAl íjljjj

^[20] As far as I could ascertain, this term does not appear in the indices of the following textbooks: J. Schacht, Introduction, B. Weiss (ed.), Studies in Islamic Legal Theory, nor is there any mention of it in the table of contents of Weiss, The Search. It is noteworthy that al-Àmidï himself, the subject of Weiss' monograph (see note 18), when discussing qiyas, does use the term istinbat and its derivatives - see, for example, al- Ihkam fiusülal-ahkam, vol. 3, p. 87 et passim. The term is also missing from the index of J. van Ess, Théologie und Gesellschaft and from the index of Christopher Melchert, The Formation of the Sunni Schools of Law. This absence is noteworthy, especially vis-à-vis the extensive and systematic discussion of istinbat in al-Razr, Mafâtih, vol. 10, pp. 139-161.

^[21] On the complexity of the term ta ’wil and its evolution from a synonym of tafsir to a term denoting an exegesis inclined towards allegorization, see I. Poonawala, "Ta’wil" EI, vol. 10, p. 390; see also below, notes 28, 101. On the development and complexities of the term qiyas, see M. Bernand, "Kiyas" EI, vol. 5, p. 238.

^[22]   ij^LVI Je. i^yi Üla. jA Jj i<!^ Üa.í o jjjA ^jIj o JJ^àj'j o JJjA ^jl ^J^JS    <LljjÁulj o j^ájj J-^ JjI ^jCiá £SJ j-lij

Jl aÍjj^^ „*A          <^Aj t<x^^             L> ¿¿liij       Jl aÍjj^^ <2^a              it^jJ JJ1L jjjj              L>S e'm^'l ^jjj

Ia j>^ ^l A-^Ij            jA'í'I 3A ^j^ill j^j'j .M-^'j'lj aásjJI, ibid. To Ibn Qayyim's partiality to Ibn ‘Abbas vis- à-vis Abu Hurayra, cf. the distinction that Abu Talib al-Makki (d. 386/996) makes between the sagacity of Hasan al-Basri and the lack of intelligence of one of the companions who, in Basra, transmitted traditions he had heard from the Prophet himself with no understanding of their meaning - see al-Makki, Qut al- qulub, vol. 1, pp. 147-148 (...^l^ll Íájj^j fUl ^^j jSé ); cf. also the distinction that Abü al-Najib al- Suhrawardi (d. 563/1168) makes between Hadith transmitters and those who use Hadith for drawing laws out of them: "The predominance of jurists over men of Hadith, from whom the former had received their knowledge, is their being endowed with understanding, with ability to extrapolate laws from the Hadith and

with profound and meticulous study of the religious laws and ordinances... The latter are, therefore, the most distinguished religious judges" - f^l                     lj^^ Ly          <J^       A:-^l m^^Í               Ij^ 4Jill L>Ij

0-^dj jjl jJSa.          ... jjl jja^j fl^’Vl i—yjjj Ji j^jll           0^»21Ij dn^il <5á J il_r^'j'lj, Abü al-Najib al-

Suhrawardi, Âdâb al-muridîn, p. 14, section 35 (Abu al-Najib was the uncle of Shihab al-Din al- Suhrawardi, on whose ‘Awarif al-ma ‘aridsee the lengthy discussion in what follows.).

^[23] According to the verse under discussion; for the issue of the identity of these "men of authority", see al- Razi, Maiatih, vol. 10, pp. 159 ff.

^[24] Note that Ibn Hazm, a Zahirite scholar, seems to deny any positive implication of istinbat in interpreting

verse 83 of süra 4. He writes: "If they were sincere, [they would have realized that] this verse contains the strongest proof for rejecting istinbat'' -            IJ^jÍ jl 3_jVl oía    .LLm^Vl JIM Ji f^^i        Vj, al-Ihkam fi

usul al-ahkam, vol. 6, p. 21; on Ibn Hazm's strict position, see Ibn Khaldün, al-Muqaddima, vol. 3, p. 1048; cf. also al-Razi, Maiatih, al-Mas^Jala al-thalitha, vol. 10, p. 159: among other exegetical options, al-Razi mentions that yastanbitunahu in 4:83 possibly refers to the mñnafíqñn (hypocrites), thus implying a negative connotation of istinbat.

^[25] See the appraisal of the seventh/thirteenth-century ibn Taymiyya, Usülal-tafsir, p. 42: "As to tafsir, the

^9°       ^lU-^i              <j*i   ^lill (Jc-i.

with Ibn ‘Abbas, see the comments of Abu Zayd, Nasr Hamid, Falsafatal-ta ’wil, pp. 12 ff.

^[27] See ibn Taymiyya, Usülal-tafsir, pp. 60-69.

[28] f T T - 1 Ï7Z*—       z-ZA -.-I *1— rT-1—1-1 IHX-l-l— I      .• I <1 Z» •       — 7Í   1 - 1   11 1         .    -11

Cf. Usul al-tafsir, p. 69 with Abu Talib al-Makki, a 'conservative' Sufi, in Qut al-qulub, vol. I, chapter 31 (= the section on "Concerning the division of disciplines: the best and most ancient, the newest and reviled" (Uj^j^j IjjJa^j U-Jjáj Ljájj»^ _?ji*ll Jj^sj jSj), p. 340: "Exegesis by means of ta ’wil, if it does not deviate from the general consensus (ijma ‘, can be considered [valid] knowledge; exegesis by means of istinbat, if it is deposited in the Qur'an, [namely], testified by the totality of the Qur'an and uncontradicted by the sacred text, [such an exegesis] is [valid] knowledge" ù¹^ l3l LLmAlj ¡All A j^l- ¡l^A'I jo jjA. l3l dtjAa A A ^jll Ajsljj V AA <1 -A-: —IjSJI Ji Iojjjwl.. Later on, al-Makki cites an uncouth comment by al-Sha‘bi: "Whatever they report to you which is based on [prophetic] traditions and accounts, accept; but whatever they report to you which is based on their own opinion, spit on it - and once he even said, piss on it" L> j_3 Sj^ Jis jsj A AJj ^ij j^ IjjAÍ Uc. ¿IjA Lj jü jüVlj QÍ^Jl jo ¿jA On the assertion that all branches of knowledge are (potentially) deposited in the Qur'an and can be drawn out from it by istinbat, see al-SuyUti, al-Iklil, pp. 7-8.

^[29] Cf. ibn Taymiyya, op. cit, with the concise exegetical-legalistic methodology described by the third/ninth century Muhammad ibn Nasr al-Marwazi, Kitab al-sunna, p. 107: "it is said: the Prophet, peace whether in an explicit text or by the obligation to obey Him. The companions of the Prophet, peace be upon him, and their successors unanimously agreed that the foundations of knowledge and law are [included] in

the Book of God; it contains clear [verses] that can be easily understood when recited, and other that are drawn out (mustanbat) by the investigation of men of knowledge and understanding"                       A^l J^' IA

Al jo ^lj ^1*11 Jd j^ Ari.»* j Aj'j^j' Ji                         jjj <j^s Al —L3S Ji ?l£^VIj fAll dj^l. On Abu ‘Abdalla

Muhammad ibn Nasr al-Marwazi, a Hadith transmitter and a Shafi‘i faqih from Samarkand (d. 294/906), see al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, Ta ’rikhBaghdad, vol. 4, pp. 85-88, No. 1732; al-Dhahabi, Siyara‘lam al- nubala’, vol. 14, pp. 33-40, No. 13. To these statements cf. al-Sarraj, Kitabal-luma‘, Aj^jll ¡A. jo jAl —’Q

p. 6, lines 1-4: "All the religious sciences do not surpass the following three: Verses from the Book of God most High, tradition on (or by) God's Messenger, peace be upon him, and drawn out wisdom (hikma mustanbata) which occurred to the heart of one of God's friends" —j^ rU A jo ^jAj' V jAl _?Jlo ÍA; Al 4L' j- Jj JU J^ r jLa                                               j Al J^uij jo jjA ji Aj jo Al. Later (lines 14-17) al-Sarraj

writes: "Anyone who is baffled regarding one of the reliogous principle or its branches, laws, truths, preventive measures, and ordinances, whether in their outer or inner sense, must turn to these three classes [of men of knowledge]: the men of Hadith, the jurists and the Sufis" ^ojjb jAl Jj^' j- J^' Ao JAl j- As A^lj ¿¿iillj AM —AA :íM AlMl                                                      Jl L j- a! âs              LiLLj l<4£Aj .-,-- = A1Aj LAj.

Note the difference between Ibn Nasr’s formulation: "that are drawn out (msutanbat) by the investigation of men of knowledge and understanding" and al-Sarraj’s "drawn out wisdom (hikma mustanbata) which occurred to the heart of one of God's friends." This difference indicates that the Sufis saw themselves as the true ‘authorities of knowledge' ((AH Jji) endowed with istinbat which they achieve not by means of investigation and speculation, but by means of inspiration and revelation (and see more below).

^[30] & Ail^i _MjH Al        <¿11 Judil           J SjUVl fio jtj      ¿ L.    Al ^jj <413 Ô*

j^       Al J j jLii        J jljSll       j^ j.SaJl Uúl jLj ^jkll ^úl jój <jj jkJl jl jWlj l ïllhlllj o jjijJl ¿LxJl

<•*j^i ^U^j fjjlájíj e^W' - ibid, lines 7-11; note the repeated use of the root W-R-TH denoting endowing, bequeathing - it alludes, no doubt, to the Sufis’ self-perception as the true successors of the prophets as predicted in the well-known hadith. "The sages are the successors of the prophets" - e-LwVl ajjj «.Ukll jl.

^[31] The term ahl al- ‘Um is used by al-Sarraj to explain the idiom 'CUTal-amrof 4:83 as referring to those who possess mystical knowledge.

^[32]                               ¡t^^^I             0JAÜ1I jLiVlj jlJill OLI J 0JJ^A^ O1 ¿sj JS J t^Ulo j J^dVI ^hfrSalj

^Jj ¿^ij .. .djJS^J JaÍ                  <JSj Ol hllbax' LjJS Xjláxll ^-sl-sl^l jkjJlj f^£ll JaÍ ^JjSj . ..^w AjS^AII (jjlAJl J

Jdj OU1ÜI _&IJL ÀI JI ¿¿iJBUlj OX4*Jlj OL^LJIj OUUJI > d-Jl J ^AVIj AS^llj ftdL JJl Jd oLh^ ¿jU^lI - al-Sarraj, Kitab al-luma‘, p. 106, lines 12-22; cf. al- Husayn [al-Hallaj ?]’s explanation: "Understanding the Qur’an through istinbat is comensurate with the external and internal piety of God’s servant and with the completeness of his [mystical] knowledge - this is the most elevated among the

j                 ^j ji             v 0^4'        J ^^ij thàJIj iiili ^i JI j^¡                             Ji              ji j¿ >^i

^^ J-j ^'-“'-5^j J^AÍj Jlj^ij ^ j-^j - p. 107, lines 7-10; on the infinite scope of the sacred text and its exegetical possibilities in Kabbalah, see Idel, Perfections, pp. 80-110. My thanks go to Dr. Jonathan Garb for referring me to Idel’s book.

^[34] See al-Sarraj, Kitabal-luma‘, pp. 72-92.

^[35]  "^ y.j ^¿ll Ji! ji US Ai jl£             ^Jùi <413 J jl".

^[36]  On al-Harith ibn Asad al-Muhasibi, see al-Sulami, Tabaqât al-Sufyya, pp. 49-53; M. Smith, An Early Mystic of Baghdad, R. Arnaldez, "al-Muhasibi" El, vol. 7, p. 446 ff; van Ess, Gedankenwelt pp. 466 ff.

^[37] On al-Muhasibi’s influence on Bahya ibn Paquda (Spain, 11^th century), see Amos Goldreich, "On the Possible Arabic Source for the distinction between ‘the Duties of the Limbs’ and ‘the Duties of the Hearts'," Te‘uda 61988, pp. 179-208 (in Hebrew); on the continuing influence of the doctrine of the internalization of the service of God in medieval Jewish mysticism, see S. Sviri, "The emergence of pre- Kabbalistic spirituality in Spain: The case of Bahya ibn Paquda and Judah Halevi," Donaire 1996, pp. 78­84.

^[38] Al   dA L>    J£        ^s J^j                je. Al jo ^l           ^jA                    ^UAVI        Je. j                 oJL¡ L>c. ^IjI     ^jlja. Jjs iA        jSj                     — al-

(£jAl ¡Je.            jât U jl£ jj).

^[40] Mujahid ibn Jabir al-Makki (d. ca. 100/722), one of the Prophet’s companions, an early exegete of the ‘Abdallah ibn ‘Abbas school, and see on him A. Rippin, "Mudjahid b. Djabr al-Makki", El, vol. 7, p. 293.

^[41] On ‘Shahid as ‘Shahid,’ see also al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi, Tahsilnazadral-Qur’an, pp. 129 ff.

^[42] Cf. al-Tustari, Tafsir, p. 93: "He listened to what we mentioned witnessing his Lord in a state of in his explanation of that same verse: "with his hearing he listens to He who hears him, and with his heart he witnesses what he hears from He who witnesses him" - =-aA A Aï. .A JI J^>i. Note

Abu Talib's emphasis on the reciprocity and synesthesias of hearing and seeing between God and man.

^[44]         J^j J- Al jjjj Al ¿Anu A jjó «^Aj ûjaj V JI J jdc. JI jí AA JI J J^j jc. Al AS JI ^Atl ¿A ùj**A jjjlJl : J^j jc. Jlss ^a jtlj Aj A^j câljjj J^j jc Jis AS jAj ^ij Jis <^tl ^jIjj Al j‘V ^ jSs A <1 jlS AJVI Jjí a ÆVjîj Al ^aIsa jjl A'₂A AJ jjAlis JJ1I - al-Muhasibi , Kitab al-ri‘aya, p. 1, lines 18-20, p. 2, line 1 ; note Arberry's rendering of ülü -l-albab with "men possessed of minds" and cf. above, around note 42.

^[45] Note that attentive listening is the basis of the himma technique, the intentional focusing of thought and will, a technique with magical-theurgical connotations that has evolved in Sufism; there are far-reaching practical and theological differences between himma and niyya, the intention demanded of the believer before performing any one of the commandments; on himma, see, for example, F. Meier, "The priority of faith and thinking well of others," pp. 589-647, esp. pp. 640 ff.

^[46] ÜJÏi^VIj ^g-stl (jjjk   2^1 4állj ^Ua^VI Júc. ^úl^Jl    ^QSU (.iûA; U ¿^.Vl ^t-iil ^j*^j — al-Sarraj, Kitab al­

luma‘, p. 79, lines 15-18.

^[47]  See the canonical Hadith collections (e.g., al-Bukhari, Sahih, Kitab al-iman), and al-Sarraj, Kitab al­luma¹ (^^ill ¡Je. cP ¿A^ U-0, p. 6, lines 4-8. For a different interpretation, according to which al-ahsan alludes to the prophet Muhammad and his primordial qualities, see al-Suhrawardi, ‘Awarif al-ma ‘arif p. 19

^[48] On the term hudür (presence, being present), usually found in association with its antonym, ghayba (absence), see list of Sufi terms in al-Sarraj, Kitabal-huna‘, pp. 333-374; al-Qushayri, al-Risala, p. 37; al- Hujwiri, Kashf al-mahjub, pp. 248-251.

^[49] Ha¹ M.m - among the enigmatic letters found at the beginning of twenty-nine süras in the Qur'an.

^[50] 4je.|jáj JAI Jo Jjjjs. AÍA Aj Jo JJ Alo í^jjil jí£                                                  jí y. jlJll ^tAJ ¿-^11 451I Jjí

AA Jj Jo JJ (194-192 :26) "Alá Jo Jjÿl ^jjll Jj jJUl Jj Jjíl <jlj" J je Al JJ1                                              <J1I Jo

JAI Jjli Æ£j Al j.                               (1 :39) -JJ jjj Al JAI JjA ... jo Al JJ Ajj ¿A jl

(2-1 :40) fjMl jaj*il Al

- al-Sarraj, Kitab al-luma ‘ p. 80. 'The faithful spirit,’ J-Vl ^jjl in 26:193, is, as is well known, a reference to the angel Gabriel; on direct listening to verses of the Qur'an recited by God Himself during a dialogue between Him and those who pray in solitude at night, see Ibn al-‘Arabi, al-Futühât al-makkiyya, ch. 41, vol. 1, pp. 549 ff.

^[51]          j^i^jj jjjll -al-Baqara (2):3.

^[52] "The hidden is what God reveals to the hearts; it establishes the divine attributes and names and that by which God has described himself.... They do not claim that they have grasped it to its limit" - j*

U^lA eb ...■'-““ ^^j l^j <il^ij Al ^ill^ ^>L¿'l ^QSll Al jjAi - al-Sarraj, Kitab al-luma ‘ p.

81, lines 8-11.

^[53] See ibid, pp. 84-86.

^[54] Cf. al-Sarraj’s definition of al-mustanbatatl ibid, p. 105, and see above, note 33.

^[55] Reservations about erroneous interpretations that are ascribed to mystical seeing can be found in al-Sarraj himself; see, for example, chapter entitled "Those who err concerning the seeing of the heart," Kitab al­luma ‘ pp. 428-429, and cf. the statement "One should know that any light that his eyes see in this world is

creation; but the seeing of the heart through revelation in faith, through certitude and trustworthy acceptance, such a seeing is true - Ah 2 j jb&l                                                A^l J^j T* ù9*^ A J *^ 2^s jl A“tl          jl <AAj p. 269, lines 12-14

^[56] See, for example, the chapter entitled "On those who hit the mark in their istinbât, their allusions and their Qur'an understanding vis-à-vis those who erred and missed the mark" - ULm^Vl              ^>l^í      Ui^>j     ._L

,^jj     üaÍj              Ui^jj jijSii        ^^jJij s jiiyij

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

^[62] Ibid.

^[63] Most of the citations are found also in al-Sulami's earlier commentary on the Qur'an, and cf. al-Sulami, Haqaiq al-tafsïr, vol. 2, pp. 269-271.

^[64] úF               Jiíj V Al                         jljáll            - al-Suhrawardi, ‘Awarífal-ma ‘aríf p. 16.

^[65]  ^2^l Ja ^ilsj LuAj                             <1^1^ jJJ (J ícALll jjJ Jw              |j| ^2^ tjjjJl (Jj-uL ^¿2^l ^ila jLtí ^ilSll

Sjiÿl Ji        ._U2j        L> 4 1^1 Jjj LijJl Jj^l jd                  |j| ^2^ Sjâÿl Jl^L — ibid.

^[66] Mjil -J^ VI AJS jLAj y        jl£       — ibid.

^[67] See above, note 56 and see below, around note 89, concerning the 'existential receptacle'.

^[68] On this issue, see, for example, van Ess, Gedankenwelt, p. 32.

^[69] See Matthew 13:3-23, Mark 4:3-20, Luke 8:3-15; see also The Gospel of Thomas, 9.

^[70] Note that in al-Muhasibi and al-Suhrawardi’s versions, we find the phrase "[the sower] went out, took a handful [of seeds]"            ^); this phrase appears in the Gospel of Thomas, but does not appear in the

synoptic gospels.

⁵ See al-Muhasibi, Kitab al-riava, pp. 2-3; on al-Muhasibi ’s possible sources and on the copious citations from Christian literature in his works as well as in early Islamic literature, see van Ess, Gedankenwelt, pp. 27-28; see also Massignon, Passion, vol. 3, p. 45 (= p. 38 in Mason's translation) and see also below, note 77. It is worth noting that an allusion to the Parable of the Sower can be gleaned also in Süra 2:264: the word safwan in this verse, denoting a hard and smooth stone (see, e.g., Ibn al-Jawzï, Zadal-masir, 1384/1964, vol. I, pp. 318-319), appears also in al-Suhrawardï (in al-Muhasibï's version the word is sala). Interestingly, none of the authors associates the parable with this Qur'anic verse. I am indebted to Prof. Haggai Ben-Shammai for the attempt to assume a possible association between the Parable of the Sower and Qur. 2:264.

^[72] Al-Suhrawardi, Awaiif al-ma‘ârif p. 18.

^[73] For a summary of sources and studies, see T. Khalidi, The Muslim Jesus: Sayings and Stones in Islamic Literature, Introduction, pp. 3-45; see also above, notes 73-75.

^[74]   See, for example, ‘Uyün al-akhbarby Ibn Qutayba (d. 271/884).

^[75] 11. jl£ >jf" :^ Al Jia ¿Jll y.j Jj'Vl J J ₄US aJ jll ^Lill JU V                   _?J ^ T- J :<^ljil JU

"“AhAs - al-An‘am (6):122 - al-Suhrawardi, Awaríf al-ma‘áríf p. 17; cf. al-Sulami, Haqaiqal-tafsir, vol.

2, p. 269: ^Ljll JU V -alj _?Jsl ^ jSl ^l_: "namely, the ‘reminder’ is to one group of people, and not all people".

^[76] t“^je_1#A! Jal IjI JLA Al j'V                   2-ia^llj JajjSjaLA.1I - al-Suhrawardi, Awaríf al-ma‘aríf p. 17. The

end of the dictum alludes to a well known hadith, which usually deals with phenomena such as eclipses: jV ^Ai. <âlâ j. e^Ai (Ijj J) Jal làl Al, see A. J. Wensinck, Concordance et Indices de la Tradition Musulmane, vol. 2, p. 31; cf. al-Kalabadhi, Kitab al-ta ‘arruf p. 91 (jlA^Vlj Jalil J jj^.âllj j.lHl JJl): "The sign that

God reveals Himself to the innermost heart is that the heart cannot articulate verbally, or contain by .(J^al jAtj V JL'-IA jhlá J yá J JJO ¿A íyjlLj AjjaJ J JJJaijLj

^[77] fjlljSjaIA.1I jjj       ¿.aj jAAil jLJ jAj Jjjâ! flJ’Vl oja ALly ÍjVI ojaj - al-Suhrawardi, ‘Awaríf al­ma‘arif, p. 1 7.

^[78] SjÜj                     ojúláj               - al-Suhrawardi, Awaríf al-ma ‘ârif p. 17. For a daring analysis of the

distinction between masters of talwin and masters of tamkin, especially from the perspective of the theology of seeing God, see ibid, p. 311: "... The possessors of the heart undergo changing states according to the multiplicity of the [divine] attributes, because the hearts and the possessors of the hearts do not trasncend the realm of the attributes; the possessors of stability (tamkin), on the other hand, transcend the inauspicius aspects of the [mystical] state, rend the veils of the heart, and their spirits witness the radiance of the light of the divine essence with no mediation; then the talwin is removed from them, for there is no change in the divine essence, His essence is beyond events and changes" - Oti^Jl jj»j                                                                                m^® mOj^

^Ab J mA                 J^J Jlj^’Vl          <jp Ija.jAá JjS-íll mQJ idj j^ls^ll ^llo Jo UjLjIj m_A jJA A i^Lxjli

^llJJ*21Ij OjljaJl Jji Jo 4j|j Ola. jl OljJl gi jjIjJI j.Jxl Jj^ljll ¿ájjtá i^lljil J^j ^    f^ljJ.

^[79] On talwin and tamkin, see ibid, p. 311; al-Sarraj, Kitab al-luma ‘ p. 366 (talwin); al-Qushayri, al-Risala, p. 41; al-‘Ajam, Mawsu‘at mustalahat al-tasawwuf pp. 199-203.

^[80] 2_Jl£Jlj ÍÍJ^Jl        ^*î!l j^A, ibid; cf. the definition of sobriety and intoxication in the glossary of terms

of al-Suhrawardi: "Intoxication belongs to the masters of hears, and sobriety belongs to those to whom the truths of the hidden are revealed" - MjAl            jñúlSJl ^^Ilj m Mb A jiJli, p. 310.

^[81] For a collection of sayings on the Sufi iham, see al-‘Ajam, Mawsû‘atmustalahatal-tasawwuf pp. 85-87.

^[82] For a discussion on the superiority of sobriety over intoxication on the mystical path, see al-Hujwiri,

Kashf al-mahjüb, pp. 184-188.

^[83]  f^l ù^ jLll (4^ ■•'*‘’“'■«11 i-J^jH      ^ilj JUl             aSAH 0^3 Ax^t V jAJlj                         JK ^3      j^j

j^^ll        jAj jA^ll fUL ^3             Ulii çl^jl       ^ijAj^ -j^l l^*j l?.-j^j tit j ùU-U: f-^lj ^l^tJlj ‘fUlVI -j

^[84] "Aux!       A- A J^“ jNj Á IjiWmil             j-plI L^jÍ Li" - ibid, p. 19.

^[85] See above, around note 64.

^[86] JI A Vj Jji ^1              ^jVI »A I «A - ibid.

^[87] On Abu al-‘Abbas Ahmad ibn ‘Ata’, see al-Sulami, Tabaqât al-süi"iyya, pp. 260-268; on his fame as a Qur'anic exegete, see ibid, p. 260; on his commentary which is inserted in al-Sulami, Haqa’iqal-tafsir, see Nwyia, Trois oeuvres, p. 25; R. Gramlich, Ibn AtaAbül Abbas, Suf undKoranauslegep Bowering, "Sufi hermeneutics."

^[88]  £| Jl j _lfA^ll XJl^l J < JA^ll UJ ^jiai J jail UJj! :^ j! J Jo LJl^l jVl .j* J :ALo JISj MiJ^l I ; see also al-Sulami, Haqaiq al-tafsir, vol. 1, p. 264; it should be noted that the tawhid of the first aspect refers, undoubtedly, to the confessional tawhid, not to a so-called unio mystica.

^[89] Cf. the introduction to al-Tustari, Tafsir, p. 3: "Each verse in the Qur’an has four meanings: external, internal, legal, and contemplative (?); the external, namely its recitation (or: its narrative aspect); the internal, namely the understanding of the Qur'an (its cognitive-discursive aspect?); the legal, namely, what is forbidden and what is permitted; the contemplative, namely the watching of the heart over what the verse conveys [by means of] a God granted apprehension - iJL^j j ¿Lt_j j*l^ :ù^l^-“ J Ab VI jlJll J- U J- L>j Al tjj jljJl Jo uíáJl ijljAI JLJlj j^j ji^llj ^^ill óhLJlj Sj^jJl jaIÜIí. For scholarly discussions of the four levels of textual understanding, see Goldziher, Richtungen, p. 215; J. Wansbrough, Quranic Studies. Sources and Methods of Scriptural Interpretation, pp. 242 ff. Note the analogy that Wansbrough proposes to the quadrivium of medieval Biblical exegesis - historia, allegoria, tropologia, anagoge; on this, see also H. Ben-Shammai, "'The Qur’an has been brought down in seven modes of articulations’ - on possible parallels (or antecedents) to an old Islamic tradition," the Annual S. Pines Memorial Lecture, the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 2001 (unpublished). My thanks go to Professor Meir Bar- Asher for this reference and to Professor Haggai Ben-Shammai for a copy of his unpublished lecture. In the context of the four exegetical modes in Islam, it would be interesting to discuss also medieval Jewish exegesis, especially what is known as Pardes. On this, see Idel’s summary in "Pardes: the fourfold method of interpretation," Appendix 1 in his Perfections, pp. 429-438.

^[90]         Ja. J£lj Ja. j_ja J£lj JÁj Ji-k Jj Vl V jJ^l           djj :             ^jjll Jl       JJ J^iaJl Jo Jjj Jj Jo Jo... - al-

Suhrawardi, ‘Awarif al-ma ‘ârif pp, 19-20, and cf. the previous note; according to al-Ghazali, there are those who ascribe this tradition to ‘All; note, that in his polemic with the Batiniyya, on the one hand, and with the Hashwiyya on the other, al-Ghazali argues that an esoteric understanding of a verse does not cancel out its literal meaning, and vice versa - see Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, Mishkatal-Anwar, p. 73.

^[91] See Lisan al- ‘arab, vol. 8, p. 239:         jj^j                    j Jj ji j»jj, but the overall discussion of the

term in Lisan al- ‘arab favors muttala ‘ Wansbrough reads matla ‘ as does Sheikh ‘Abd al-Karim al-Zurba, the Imam of the al-Aqsa mosque, as I heard in a lecture he gave on the Mount of Olives in June 2004. The reading muttala ‘ is substantiated by a discussion of the four exegetical modes in a work by the Sufi sheikh Ahmad al-Rifa‘i, a contemporary of Abu Najib al-Suhrawardi (d. 574/1178): In Kitab al-burhan al- mu’ayyid, in the chapter entitled "The boundaries of understanding the Qur’an," p. 178, he explains the fourth mode, al-muttalla‘ thus: "The muttala‘ is the place from which masters of the revelation contemplate the truths of the words directed at them by angelic inspiration and the understanding of the spirit... no-one can contemplate the truth [of the Qur'an] without revelation and vision" -                                           Jñ>»l54l jlj4I y ¿IkJlj

ojaIâ^j ^ZS <1 jlS j^ VI Jo ¿ILj Tj ...£jjil ÜLâj ¿H4l ^JLj jjjl L> JHa . Later, on p. 179, he adds: "The fourth stage [of Qur'anic exegesis] is contemplating it (al-ittila ‘ ‘alayhl) by the clear light that is found only among the God-fearing" - ...j4-^l                            Vl j^jj V Jill JjJI jjb ^4° ^ViVI y               jll 3-jjjllj.

^[92] See Goldziher, Richtungen, p. 215,

^[93]   JJ^I ú* ójj?. A       3^s        O -&I ¿Ikdl jjSjá (<^lc 2á.l^JI ¿ILJlá - al-Suhrawardi,

^[94]   flxllj íijUl > Jo               íijUlj ‘f^SlI J4Ü íijUl > Jo fjlj _4f4ii|                    & gUJlj ‘0-^            J*

U-l Ijtù OU1S US JSj ^yai olj JI IJù US ^l JSá ‘UJU j=- jUl Jll dJS jljll US JS J Allá .".¿J Jj'VI <J*1I - al-Suhrawardi, ‘Awârifal-ma ‘ârif p. 19; on one word that is also many words and vice versa, cf. al-Hakim al-Tirmidhï, Nawâdir al-usúl, vol. 1, p. 24, and S. Sviri, "Words of power and the power of words," Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 27 (2002), p. 217.

^[95]   Cf. Sahl al-Tustari, Tafsir, p. 4 (jljáH       m^ ^U^ ^Ij ): "He finds the guidance and the vision of his

heart according to the degree of light that God alotted to him" - <1.1^*       •&!       ¿Sil jjjll         ¿»s _: J^ Jis

^[96]  Note the use that al-Suhrawardi makes here of the controversial concept of ta ’wil', for him ta ’wildoes not signify the symbolic-allegoristic exegesis of the Shi ‘a Batinites, but rather an intuitive-contemplative understanding of the words of God, as far as I could ascertain, he does not use the term istinbât at all, a term we would have expected from al-Sarraj in a similar context, see above, around notes 21, 28, 30.

^[97]   4sl^ ^Ijll <¿=- j;W„ |j*j djja iTlljj <!> ¿ill mIj^VIj IgU^'lj l^jt^j ijÿl Jjjj jJc. Jduisis (Jjjtjllj jlullill jdJ jjSj

Jsjüls _t*iUlJ MS1I Jàl»1     <¿ll J—II js                          JI J.VI ^dijbll          uJ ‘>VIJ   t^ VI           JjSlI

•&I  ujiil M‘^'^uj *sjj fjiil tU^                         oUj£j L> Jc. JjjJl JK U^2iL - al-Suhrawardi, Awarf'al-ma ‘aríf

p. 20; cf. the Isma'ili scholar Abu Hatim al-Razi (d. 322/934-5), in Kitab al-ñna, according to I. Poonawala "Taw," El, vol. 10, p. 391.

^[98]   J-iJ-bi           f^lj (3*^ j^J A (*4^1 0^ ‘J-^^I                  J J^jll (jJSJj ^Jl tti^>                   J J^xll Jl JC.JJ

i^iLj _fJkii &         ¿áj J^VI .j» &      ij! i-JSj ...Ji^i jo 4jai j^oj _Mjiai               y. UI ud d~n ij*j

-bVI ¡J J          Jc- - al-Suhrawardi, Awaríf alma ‘arif p. 20.

^[99] íj| JS               jí ¿l^Jl Jb Si^l À J^l                 J Jxdl 0JSJ Jo ydl tli^j UJJj                ¿ikdl JjSj j ^J^ JlAjj

tl       j^^Jj Lgc-Uuj ^>qVl SjXj ^Lilyill <i Jâ^jà ^*jj Aál^jí ^^j £jjiuu> LjjV Jj ^Ku'l -                          Jo

J^JI         jo - ibid, pp. 20-21. On the mystical experience in Kabbalah as a source for a profound understanding of the sacred text, see: M. Idel, "The pneumatic interpreter and union with the Torah," in Kabbalah, New Perspectives, pp. 234 ff.

^[100] Cf. also above, around notes 84-89. For more on the idea that "negative mysticism (negation of the image and word) and positive mysticism (that sees visions and translates them into words) are not always two different paths embraced by two distinct religious types, [but] rather, are sometimes two successive stages," see H. Pedaya, Vision and Speech, p.23. My thanks go to Dr. Jonathan Garb for directing me to this important work on the nature of the revelatory experience in Jewish mysticism.

^[101] See Nwyia, "Le tafsir mystique," pp. 181-230; Bowering, "Sufi hermeneutics."

^[102] Cf. Nwyia, "Le tafsir mystique," p. 188 (Ja‘far al-Sadiq’s introduction to his commentary): "The Book of God [is built] on four things: literal interpretation, allusion, subtleties and truths; the literal interpretation is meant for ordinary people, allusion is for people of distinction, subtleties are for the friends of God, and truths are for the prophets" - ^lj±H »JAVlj fJ*H ójL*lli ¡ jílá^llj ¡.<1 klllj SjlAVlj SjL*ll >LAÍ ±j Jc. Al ^12S *W^ jiUktlj j^l UúLLUlj,

^[103] oj*             ÍjÍ J£1 jjSss jjjj^jj V ¿£lj <^±S J ¡>±i*l Al        sal : Jis -ci    Al      j Jst^ll ji*^ jo JSi ±lj

^Kull -       Jl f^£ll jo JjjII JLJlj ^^£ll            s^lls lo^^jll - al-Suhrawardi, Awarif al-ma ‘ârif p. 21, and cf. also al-Kharraz, above, note 54. On ‘fainting’ due to the intensity of the experience in Jewish mysticism, see Pedaya, Vision and Speech, pp. 86 ff.

^[104] See above, Abu Sa‘rd al-Kharraz, note 10.

^[105] A reference to, but not a systematic discussion of, istinbatcan be found in Goldziher, Richtungen, p. 198; although Massignon actually refers to istinbat in his Essai sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane (= L. Massignon, Essay on the Origins of the Technical language of Islamic Mysticism, trans. Herbert Mason), Chapter 2, which is the analytical introduction to his book (see p. 46), he does not devote a discussion to it. In idem, Passion, too, there are a few references to istinbat(see index), but there is no systematic discussion of it; see, on the other hand, a small but important paragraph in Fritz Meier, "An important manuscript find for Sufism," in Essays on Islamic Piety and Mysticism, p. 184.

^[106] R. A. Nicholson, The Mystics of Islam, London 1914, pp. 23-24. Herbert Mason, the translator of Massignon’s works into English, questions Nicholson’s definition, and contrasts it with istinbat as practiced by Massignon himself [!] in his study of Sufi terminology - see translator’s introduction to Essay on the Origins of the Technical Language of Islamic Mysticism, p. xxiii; see also van Ess, Gedankenwelt, pp. 212­213, in the context of al-Muhasibi, and cf. al-Muhasibi, Kitab al-ri‘aya, p. 209.

^[107] Abu Nasr al-Sarraj, Kitab al-luma‘ fi’l-tasawwuf ed. R. A. Nicholson, Leiden and London, 1914.

^[108] See note 94.

^[109] il^^Vl ouul           ¿¡Il jUtfl oUi. > ihb- ouuu J             JÍ f^l jl                   J Ü4I       i jW J

¿JtólSJl (jjjLj - al-Sulamï, Haqâïq al-tafsr, vol. 1, p. 157.ess